All publications: informal employment + informal enterprises + informal economy

Ex-post study

What remains after exit? Evidence of lasting change in northern Afghanistan’s carpet sector

Findings from a low-cost ex-post review

World of Work series

Employment and Social Trends 2026

The Employment and Social Trends 2026 report examines the state of global labour markets, highlighting stable headline employment alongside stalled progress in job quality and widening inequalities. The report analyses productivity, demographic and...

Joint ILO - EU report

Mapping enterprise formalization measures in tourism in the European Union

Tourism plays a crucial role in economic growth and employment generation in European countries. However, informality remains a significant challenge in the sector contributing to deficits in decent work and sustainability and undermines tax...

ILO Brief

Informality in Viet Nam: Trends, drivers and implications

This ILO Brief reviews recent trends in informal employment in Viet Nam, identifies groups and business types most affected by informality, and discusses key policy challenges.

Executive summary

Decent work and informality in the agricultural sector in Latin America (2019-2023) - Executive Summary

The executive summary highlights that the agricultural sector continues to be characterised by high levels of informality and structural gaps, despite its importance for rural employment and food security. It puts forward key recommendations to...

E-Waste for Youth Employment project Japan study tour

Working Paper 155

From Organic Waste to Agrifood Value: Appropriate Technologies for Circular Economy and Job Creation

Discover how innovative organic waste solutions can drive green job creation and strengthen agrifood systems in Africa. This working paper highlights practical technologies and policy actions that turn waste into economic and environmental value.

Social protection

People’s Republic of China: The Social Insurance Public Service Platform

The Brief offers an overview of the platform and key lessons for improving social security service delivery.

ILO Brief

Can Indonesia cover all older persons with a public pension scheme?

ILO analysis shows a clear route to sustainable and adequate pensions for the country’s elderly population.

Social Protection

The future of social insurance in Viet Nam: Policy options and recommendations

Viet Nam is making bold progress toward universal social insurance, backed by strong policy reforms and expanding coverage. This report highlights strategic ILO recommendations to support the next phase of legal and structural transformation.

Policy Paper

Extending social security to casual workers in the construction sector in Federal Iraq and the Kurdistan Region of Iraq

This policy paper explores options for extending social security coverage to casual wage workers in the construction sector in Federal Iraq and the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Construction is one of the largest private sector employers, yet the vast...

Policy Paper

Extending social security to wage workers in the manufacturing sector in Federal Iraq and the Kurdistan Region of Iraq

This policy paper explores options to extend social security coverage to wage workers in the manufacturing sector in Federal Iraq and the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Despite being one of the largest private-sector employers, the sector is...

Policy Paper

Extending social security to own-account workers and unpaid family workers in the agriculture sector in Federal Iraq and the Kurdistan...

This policy paper examines how to extend social security coverage to own-account and unpaid family workers in Iraq’s agriculture sector, who make up a large share of informal employment but remain almost entirely excluded from social protection...

Policy Paper

Trends in Private Sector Social Security Coverage in Iraq (2021–2024)

This report, produced under the Joint United Nations Social Protection Programme in Iraq, presents the findings of a research study on trends in private sector social security coverage between 2021 and 2024. By analyzing recent data, it provides...

ILO Brief

Embracing innovation and inclusion: Strengthening Kenya’s beauty sector for host communities and urban refugees

As refugee populations are dispersed within cities and often reluctant to come forward out of fear of legal repercussions, data on their profiles and opportunities is relatively scarce. To address this challenge, the ILO carried out a market systems...

ILO Brief

Constructing pathways: Enhancing employment and inclusion of host communities and urban refugees in Kenya’s construction sector

The report’s findings, outlined in this brief, shed light on the profiles of urban refugees, the sectors where they work or have potential to find decent livelihood opportunities, the key constraints currently limiting their inclusion, and the...

ILO Brief

Towards extending social security among informal workers in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq: A focus on agricultural, construction and...

This brief synthesizes research on the extension of social security coverage to informal workers in agriculture, construction, and manufacturing sectors in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. It highlights the main barriers preventing workers from...

ILO Brief

Towards extending social security among informal workers in Federal Iraq: A focus on agricultural, construction and manufacturing sectors

This brief synthesizes research on the extension of social security coverage to informal workers in agriculture, construction, and manufacturing sectors in Federal Iraq. It highlights the urgent need to address legal, financial, and administrative...

ILO Working Paper 147

Returns to education in heterogenous labour markets: The case of Peru

This paper examines the private returns to education in the context of heterogeneous labour markets, using Peru as a case study. While education is widely considered a key driver of individ­ual earnings and economic growth, its actual returns may be...

WSSD2 Brief

Accelerating the transition to formality for decent work and social justice

This brief explores the widespread challenge of informality in the world of work and its impact on rights, productivity, and social justice. It highlights the need for integrated strategies and strong partnerships to support a sustainable transition...