Towards full employment

2.6 Conclusion

In the mid-1990s, near-full employment conditions prevailed in just six economies (Japan, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Hong Kong [China]) of the Asia-Pacific region. In all other economies, employment conditions fell short C far short in many cases C of full employment. Besides, gender inequalities were significant in all countries and child labour was prevalent in all but the advanced industrialized countries of the region.

The long-term employment trends were favourable in the same set of six economies which achieved near-full employment conditions by the mid-1990s. In all the others, employment conditions either remained broadly unchanged or worsened. In Australia and New Zealand, high unemployment became a persistent problem and the incidence of precarious, part-time employment rose simultaneously. In transition economies, some East Asian economies and South Asian economies, the problem was one of deteriorating quality of employment rather than rising unemployment. Though employment growth kept pace with labour force growth in aggregate terms, growth of regular wage employment was slower than that of the labour force. Thus there was a steady growth of relatively low-quality employment C self-employment with a poor asset base, casual wage employment and regular but insecure wage employment in the informal sector. Another manifestation of the problem was the growth of migration in search of overseas employment from many of these countries.

Alongside these unfavourable employment trends, some positive trends were also observed in many countries. Gender inequalities, child labour and poverty were declining in virtually all the countries, though the pace of decline was much too slow in several cases.

Recent developments threaten to undo even the modest progress achieved over a long period. The Asian crisis has brought back problems of unemployment, underemployment and poverty in precisely the countries which had earlier made steady progress in eliminating them. Prospects of economic recovery in the crisis-affected countries seem uncertain at this point. Outside the crisis-affected countries, economic reforms in a context of globalization have exposed problems (such as that of redundant labour in the organized sector) carried over from the past. They have also created fresh uncertainties. There are apprehensions, for example, that pressures of global competition could lead to growth of capital intensity in the organized sector and thus to a further slowdown in the growth of regular wage employment. The overall short-term consequences of the reforms, therefore, are likely to include a slowdown in the growth of Agood@ jobs and increases in both open unemployment and underemployment. These circumstances could conceivably reverse the long-term declining trends in poverty, gender inequalities and child labour. The need to make employment growth the core objective of development strategies has rarely been greater.

Table 2.1. Gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP) per capita

in selected economies, 1980-98

Country/region	GDP growth rate (per cent)					Projections	GNP per capita (US$)
Country/region	1980-90	1990-95	1985-95	1996	1997	1998	1995
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	3.4	3.5	3.0	3.7	3.1	3.6	18 720
Japan	4.0	1.0	3.0	3.9	0.8	-2.5	39 640
New Zealand	1.8	..	1.6	3.1	2.3	-0.5	14 340
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	6.9	5.6	6.3	4.6	5.3	-5.0	22 990
Rep. of Korea	9.4	7.2	8.7	7.1	5.9	-7.0	9 700
Malaysia	5.2	8.7	7.7	8.6	7.8	-6.4	3 890
Singapore	6.4	8.7	-	6.9	7.8	0.0	26 730

Indonesia	6.1	7.6	-	8.0	4.7	-15.0	980
Philippines	1.0	2.3	..	5.7	5.1	-0.6	1 050
Thailand	7.6	8.4	..	5.5	-0.4	-8.0	2 740
Transition economies
Cambodia	..	6.4	..	6.0^*	3.0	..	270
China	10.2	12.8	..	9.6	8.9	5.5	620
Lao PDR	..	6.5	..	6.8^*	6.0	..	350
Mongolia	5.5	-3.3	..	2.6^*	3.0	..	310
Viet Nam	..	8.3	..	9.3	8.8	4.0	240
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	4.3	4.1	..	5.4	5.7	4.2	240
India	5.8	4.6	..	7.5	5.6	4.8	340
Nepal	4.6	5.1	4.7	6.1^*	4.9	6.0	200
Pakistan	6.3	4.6	5.3	5.2	1.3	5.4	460
Sri Lanka	4.2	4.8	..	3.8^*	6.2	6.5	700
South Pacific economies
Fiji	..	..	4.7	3.1^*	1.0	3.0	2 400
Papua New Guinea	1.9	9.3	4.9	1.9^*	0.3	3.8	1 160

Figures were taken from Economic Intelligence Unit Reports* (EIU), 1998. Sources: World Bank, World Development Report (WDR), 1996; OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ADB, EDRC Databank, 1998; IMF, World Economic Outlook, 1998;UNDP, Human Development Report (HDR), 1998.

Table 2.2. Population in selected economies, 1985-97

Country/region	Population growth (per cent)			Population (in millions)
Country/region	1985-95	1996	1997	1997
Advanced industrialized economies*
Australia	1.5	--	1.2	19
Japan	0.6	--	0.3	126
New Zealand	0.8	--	1.2	4
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	1.2	2.4	3.0	7
Rep. of Korea	1.0	1.0	1.0	46
Malaysia	2.9	2.3	2.5	21
Singapore	1.5	1.9	2.0	3

Indonesia	1.6	1.6	1.6	200
Philippines	2.5	2.3	2.2	73
Thailand	1.7	--	1.7	61
Transition economies
Cambodia	3.4	2.3	2.0	11
China	1.4	1.0	1.0	1 227
Lao PDR	2.7	2.5	..	5
Mongolia	2.0	1.7	2.6	3
Viet Nam	2.1	1.9	1.8	77
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	2.0	1.9	1.9	124
India	2.2	2.0	2.0	961
Nepal	2.4	2.6	2.5	23
Pakistan	3.0	3.0	..	137
Sri Lanka	1.3	1.2	1.3	18
South Pacific economies
Fiji	1.3	-2.3	..	0.8
Papua New Guinea	2.1	2.0	1.9	5

The reference periods for advanced industrial countries and Thailand are 1980-90, 1990-97. Sources: ADB, EDRC Databank, 1998; World Bank, WDR*, 1998/1999.

Table 2.3. Labour force in selected economies, 1980-97

Country/region	Total labour force growth (per cent)			Female per centage of labour force
	1980-90	1990-95	1990-97	1980	1995	1997
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	2.3	1.4	1.3	37	43	43
Japan	1.1	0.6	1.1	38	41	41
New Zealand	2.0	1.5	1.4	34	44	44
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	1.6	1.3	1.9	39	40	41
Rep. of Korea	2.3	1.9	1.9	35	40	40
Malaysia	2.8	2.7	2.7	35	37	37
Philippines	2.9	2.7	2.7	47	46	46
Singapore	2.3	1.7	1.7	34	37	38

Indonesia	2.9	2.5	2.5	34	37	37
Philippines	2.9	2.7	2.7	47	46	46
Thailand	2.6	1.3	1.5	35	38	38
Transition economies
Cambodia	2.8	2.5	2.4	56	53	53
China	2.2	1.1	1.1	43	45	45
Lao PDR	1.9	2.7	2.3	45	47	47
Mongolia	3.1	2.9	2.9	46	46	46
Viet Nam	2.7	1.9	2.0	48	49	49
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	2.8	2.1	2.1	42	42	42
India	1.8	2.2	2.2	34	32	32
Nepal	2.4	2.4	2.5	39	40	40
Pakistan	2.9	3.3	3.3	23	26	27
	2.3	2.0	1.8	27	35	36
South Pacific economies
Fiji	..	..	..	..	..	..
Papua New Guinea	2.1	2.3	2.3	42	42	42

Sources: World Bank, WDR, 1997; 1998/1999; ILO-SAAT.

Table 2.4. Labour force participation rates in selected economies, 1980-96

Country/region	1980	1996	1980		1996
Country/region	Total	Total	Male	Female	Male	Female
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	45.9	51.0	58.1	33.7	58.0	43.3
Japan	49.0	53.8	61.9	36.6	64.4	43.0
New Zealand	49.0	50.1	56.1	29.1	55.8	43.2
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	49.2	52.9	62.2	35.2	63.6	39.6
Rep. of Korea	40.8	51.1	49.5	31.9	58.3	40.4
Malaysia	38.5	41.3	50.7	26.1	50.2	30.1
Singapore	46.3	49.7	59.3	32.7	61.2	39.6

Indonesia	39.5	48.4	51.5	27.7	56.2	37.2
Philippines	39.0	42.2	50.6	27.4	51.4	31.1
Thailand	52.2	60.6	54.8	49.5	63.8	55.2
Transition economies
Cambodia	54.0	52.4	52.1	55.7	51.4	52.3
China	54.9	59.9	60.6	48.9	63.7	55.6
Lao PDR	51.6	47.6	56.1	47.1	51.8	44.8
Mongolia	46.4	50.1	50.3	42.5	51.6	45.5
Viet Nam	47.7	51.5	51.1	44.5	52.5	49.4
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	47.1	52.8	52.7	41.2	56.6	43.5
India	43.6	44.4	55.8	30.5	57.4	28.6
Nepal	48.5	46.4	57.9	38.5	54.4	37.8
Pakistan	35.4	37.5	52.2	16.9	51.8	20.3
Sri Lanka	36.8	43.9	52.8	20.2	54.6	30.1
South Pacific economies
Fiji	32.1	40.6	52.4	11.2	53.9	21.7
Papua New Guinea	49.3	49.2	54.8	43.2	55.4	42.4

Source: ILO, World Labour Report (WLR), 1997/1998.

Table 2.5. Employment by sector in selected economies, 1980-97 (per cent)

Country/region	Agriculture			Industry			Services
Country/region	1980	1990	1995-97	1980	1990	1995-97	1980	1990	1995-97
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	6.5	5.4	5.1	30.9	24.9	22.5	62.6	68.8	72.2
Japan	10.4	7.2	5.5	35.3	34.1	33.3	54.0	58.2	60.8
New Zealand	10.9	10.6	9.5	33.8	24.6	24.7	55.3	64.4	65.5
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	32.0	23.0	12.0	50.2	36.7	25.7	48.4	62.4	73.9
Rep. of Korea	34.0	17.9	11.6	29.0	35.4	32.5	37.0	46.7	55.9
Malaysia	37.2	26.0	19.4	24.1	27.5	32.2	38.7	46.5	48.4
Singapore	1.3.0	0.5	0.2	35.7	36.2	30.2	62.6	63.4	69.6

Indonesia	55.9	55.9	44.8	13.2	13.7	18.1	30.2	30.2	37.9
Philippines	51.8	45.2	41.7	15.4	15.0	16.6	32.8	39.7	41.6
Thailand	70.8	64.0	50.3	10.3	14.0	19.7	18.9	22.0	29.9
Transition economies
Cambodia	76.0	74.0	75.0	6.6	7.5	4.5	17.7	18..7	20.5
China	..	60.0	52.9	..	22.0	23.2	..	18.0	23.9
Lao PDR	80.0	78.0	77.2	6.0	6.0	6.8	14.0	16.0	16.0
Mongolia	39.8	32.7	45.2	21.0	25.2	13.2	39.2	41.8	41.6
Viet Nam	73.2	71.3	70.7	13.2	14.0	10.4	13.6	14.7	18.9
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	74.0	65.0	60.1	9.0	16.0	21.8	17.0	18.0	18.1
India	70.0	64.0	60.1	6.0	16.0	18.1	24.0	20.0	21.8
Nepal	91.0	81.0	..	1.0	4.0	..	8.0	16.0	..
Pakistan	52.7	51.1	46.8	20.3	19.8	18.5	26.8	28.9	34.6
Sri Lanka	44.2	..	32.8	18.6	20.6	22.4	29.3	30.3	38.8
South Pacific economies
Fiji	..	46.0	44.0	..	15.0	14.0	..	39.0	41.0
Papua New Guinea	83.0	79.0	77.0	6.0	7.0	7.0	..	14.0	16.0

Sources: ILO, database on key indicators of the labour market (KILM), 1998; ILO-SAAT data for China, India and Nepal; UNDP, HDR, 1997 data for Fiji, Papua New Guinea.

Table 2.6. Employment growth in selected economies, 1985-98 (per cent)

Country/region		Employment growth
	1985-95		1996	1997	1998*
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	2.0		1.3	0.8	1.7
Japan	1.1		0.5	1.1	-0.1
New Zealand	0.5		3.4	0.5	0.7
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	1.4		3.4	4.3	..
Rep. of Korea	3.1		1.9	1.5	-5.0
Malaysia	3.5		3.1	2.8	..
Singapore	..		..	..	..

Indonesia	2.5		2.2	1.6	..
The Philippines	2.6		..	..	-1.0
Thailand	2.3		-1.5	-3.0	..
Transition economies
Cambodia	..		..	..	..
China	2.3		..	..	..
Lao PDR	..		..	..	..
Mongolia	3.0		-0.4	-2.5	..
Viet Nam	2.9		3.5	3.4	..
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	..		..	..	..
India	2.2		..	..	..
Nepal	2.9		..	..	..
Pakistan	2.1		3.0	0.8	..
Sri Lanka	0.8		2.7	1.3	..
South Pacific economies
Fiji	2.0		..	..	..
Papua New Guinea	..		..	..	..

* Provisional estimates. Sources: OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ADB, EDRC Databank,1998; ILO-SAAT.

Table 2.7. Rate of unemployment in selected economies, 1985-98 (per cent)

Country/region	Average	Unemployment rate
Country/region	1985-95	1985	1995	1996	1997	1998
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	8.5	8.3	8.5	8.5	8.6	8.1
Japan	2.5	2.6	3.1	3.4	3.4	4.1
New Zealand	7.0	4.0	6.3	6.1	6.7	7.8
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	--	3.2	3.2	2.8	2.2	5.0
Rep. of Korea	2.5	4.0	2.0	2.0	2.7	7.0
Malaysia	--	6.9	2.8	2.5	2.5	..
Singapore	--	4.1	2.7	3.0	2.4	4.4

Indonesia	--	2.1	..	4.9	4.7	20.0
Philippines	--	7.1	9.5	8.8	8.7	10.9
Thailand	--	3.7	1.1	2.6	2.2	4.8
Transition economies
Cambodia	--	..	..	..	..	..
China*	--	1.8	2.9	3.0	3.0	..
Lao PDR	--	..	..	..	..	..
Mongolia	--	..	5.4	6.5	7.6	..
Viet Nam	--	..	..	..	..	..
South Asian economies	--
Bangladesh	--	1.7	..	2.5	..	..
India	--	2.5	2.3	..	..	..
Nepal	--	3.1	..	4.9	..	..
Pakistan	--	3.7	5.4	5.4	5.4	..
Sri Lanka	--	14.1	12.5	11.5	10.4	..
South Pacific economies
Fiji	--	7.9	6.0	..	..	..
Papua New Guinea	--	..	..	..	..	..

* Urban unemployment. Sources: OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ILO, KILM database, 1998; ADB, EDRC Databank,1998; ILO studies; IMF, World Economic Outlook, 1998.

Table 2.8. Rate of unemployment by sex in selected economies, 1990-97 (per cent)

Country/region	1990		1995		1996		1997
Country/region	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	6.9	7.2	8.8	8.0	8.8	8.3	8.8	8.3
Japan	2.1	2.3	3.1	3.2	3.4	3.3	3.3	3.4
New Zealand	8.3	7.2	6.3	6.4	6.2	6.2	7.2	7.3
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	1.3	1.3	3.4	2.9	3.1	2.3	2.3	2.0
Rep. of Korea	3.0	1.8	2.3	1.7	2.4	1.6	2.8	2.4
Malaysia	0.1	1.0	..	..	..	..	..	..
Singapore	1.9	1.3	2.7	2.8	2.9	3.1	2.4	2.4

Indonesia	2.4	2.6	4.1	5.6	4.2	6.0	4.1	5.6
Philippines	7.1	9.8	7.7	9.4	7.0	8.2	..	..
Thailand	0.1	2.4	0.9	1.4	1.5	2.0	..	..
Transition economies
Cambodia	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
China	0.9	1.2	..	..	..	..	..	..
Laos	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Mongolia	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Viet Nam	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
South Asian economies							..	..
Bangladesh	2.0	1.9	..	..	2.7	2.3	..	..
India	..	..	2.6	1.8	..	..	..	..
Nepal	..	..	..	..	4.9	5.5	..	..
Pakistan	4.5	16.8	4.1	13.7	..	..	..	..
Sri Lanka	9.1	23.5	8.8	19.7	8.0	17.6	..	..
South Pacific economies
Fiji	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Papua New Guinea	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..

Sources: OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ILO, Year Book of Labour Statistics 1997; ILO, KILM database, 1998; ILO-SAAT.

Table 2.9. Sectoral employment disaggregated by sex in selected economies,

around 1995 (per cent)

Country/region	Agriculture		Industry		Services
Country/region	Male	Female	Male	Female	Male	Female
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	6.0	3.6	31.5	11.4	62.2	84.7
Japan	5.2	6.5	39.4	25.0	55.1	68.2
New Zealand	12.1	6.6	33.5	14.4	54.2	78.9
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	0.7	0.4	32.2	18.7	67.1	80.9
Rep. of Korea	11.0	14.7	39.6	23.7	49.4	61.6
Malaysia	21.6	16.9	32.8	31.4	45.6	51.8
Singapore	0.3	0.1	33.3	26.1	66.5	73.8

Indonesia	43.4	45.0	19.5	15.9	37.1	39.1
Philippines	51.7	31.1	17.0	13.2	31.2	55.6
Thailand	55.1	57.0	20.2	15.4	24.6	27.5
Transition economies
Cambodia	70.8	79.0	5.8	3.3	23.4	17.8
China	..	..	..	..	..	..
Lao PDR	..	..	..	..	..	..
Mongolia	..	..	..	..	..	..
Viet Nam	70.2	71.1	12.3	8.6	17.5	20.2
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	54.4	77.5	10.8	7.6	33.7	11.0
India	56.9	74.5	16.9	12.2	26.2	13.3
Nepal	74.9	90.5	5.8	1.6	21.4	8.1
Pakistan	43.9	67.4	19.6	10.7	36.4	21.9
Sri Lanka	35.5	41.5	21.0	28.7	36.3	27.6
South Pacific economies
Fiji	..	..	..	..	..	..
Papua New Guinea	..	..	..	..	..	..

Sources: ILO, KILM database, 1998; ILO-SAAT.

Table 2.10. Women's average wage as a percentage of men's in manufacturing

in selected economies, 1990-96

Country/region	1990	1991	1993	1994	1995	1996
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	82.5	..	..	85.4	..	..
Japan	..	..	..	55.4	55.9	56.4
New Zealand	74.9	..	..	..	..	78.6
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	69.3	..	56.9	67.9	65.3	63.5
Rep. of Korea	50.3	..	52.2	52.9	54.1	54.4
Malaysia	50.0	..	56.6	58.3	..	..
Singapore	54.7	..	57.1	57.2	58.3	59.5

Philippines	..	..	76.2	..	..	..
Thailand	..	63.8	..	71.4	..	..
South Asian economies
Sri Lanka	..	..	87.9	86.3	89.8	91.5

Source: ILO, Year Book of Labour Statistics, 1997.

Table 2.11. Percentage of labour force underemployed* in selected economies, 1995-97

Country/region	1995			1996			1997
	Total	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female
Advanced industrialized economies
Australia	25.6	14.2	40.9	26.2	14.9	41.3	..	..	..
Japan	20.1	10.1	34.9	21.8	11.7	36.6	..	..	..
New Zealand	21.5	10.0	36.1	21.4	10.4	37.3	21.2	10.9	37.4
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Rep. of Korea	4.4	2.9	6.7	4.4	2.7	6.9	5.1	3.3	7.8
Malaysia	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Singapore	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..

Indonesia	39.0	30.2	53.3	38.9	29.5	54.0	36.7	27.5	51.6
Philippines	20.0	21.8	16.9	21.0	23.0	17.7	23.4	25.4	17.5
Thailand	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Transition economies
Cambodia	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
China	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Lao PDR	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Mongolia	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Viet Nam	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	34.6	12.4	70.7	..	..	..	40.0	..	..
India	25.0	14.1	55.1	..	..	..	..	..	..
Nepal	47.0	39.7	54.6	..	..	..	..	..	..
Pakistan	15.3	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Sri Lanka	..	..	..	..	..	..	36.1	34.6	39.8
South Pacific economies
Fiji	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Papua New Guinea	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..	..

Here, for industrialized countries, underemployment refers to part-time employment. Except for India and Sri Lanka, the underemployed are those who worked less than 35 hours per week. In the case of India, the underemployed are those working for a part of the reference period, while in Sri Lanka the underemployed are those working less than 40 hours per week. Sources: OECD, Economic Outlook*, 1998; ILO-SAAT.

Table 2.12. Labour force participation rate of children (between 10 and 14 years of age)

in selected countries, 1995

	Country	%
	Bangladesh	30
	China	12
	India	14
	Indonesia	10
	Japan	0
	Malaysia	3
	Nepal	45
	Pakistan	18
	Philippines	8
	Thailand	16
	Viet Nam	9
	Source: ILO, 1995: Estimates and projections, 1950-2010.

Table 2.13. Incidence of poverty in selected economies, 1985-96

Country/region	Population below poverty line (per cent)
	1985 (around)			1995 (around)			1996
	Total	Rural	Urban	Total	Rural	Urban	Total
East and Southeast Asian economies
Hong Kong (China)	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Rep. of Korea	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Malaysia	19.6 (1984)	27.6	6.5	4.0	6.5	1.9	..
Singapore	..	..	..	..	..	..	..

Indonesia	22.6 (1984)	23.1	21.2	13.8 (1993)	14.2	13.1	11.3
Philippines	53.9 (1985)	..	..	48.5 (1994)	..	..	35.5
Thailand	34.0 (1986)	..	..	13.1 (1992)	..	..	11.4
Transition economies
Cambodia	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
China	24.9 (1985)	24.5	26.2	19.7 (1994)	23.0	12.0	..
Lao PDR	..	..	..	46.1 (1993)*	..	..	..
Mongolia	..	..	..	36.3*	..	..	..
Viet Nam	..	..	..	42.2	..	..	..
South Asian economies
Bangladesh	45.7 (1983/84)	46.3	43.4	42.2 (1988/89)	43.4	36.9	..
India	33.1 (1983/84)	31.4	38.3	23.7 (1993/94)	21.1	30.9	..
Nepal	42.6 (1984/85)	43.1	19.2	42.0	44.0	23.0	..
Pakistan	24.5 (1984/85)	25.9	21.2	20.6 (1992/93)	23.3	15.5	..
Sri Lanka	27.3 (1985/86)	31.7	16.4	22.4 (1990/91)	24.4	18.3	..
South Pacific economies
Fiji	..	..	..	..	..	..	..
Papua New Guinea	..	..	..	41.0	..	..	..
World Bank, WDR*, 1998/1999. The ILO estimates are based on national poverty lines, with generally around 2,100 calories per day as the norm. These estimates consequently are broadly comparable both cross-sectionally and intertemporally. The World Bank estimates take US$1 per day as the poverty line. Source: ILO-SAAT estimates.

Table 2.14. Number of overseas migrants from major labour exporting countries in Asia,

various years

Country

Year

Main destinations

Overseas migrants

India

Pakistan

Bangladesh

Sri Lanka

Myanmar

Philippines

Thailand

Indonesia

1992

1996

1997

1995

1997

Middle East

Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand

Thailand

Hong Kong (China), Middle East, Japan, Taiwan (China), Singapore

Middle East, Japan, Taiwan (China), Singapore, Brunei

Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong (China)

1 426 438

828 184

507 934

452 964

415 000

6 100 000

(6 445 400*)

202 296

2 404 000

*Estimated numbers of regular and irregular Filipino migrant workers: see Böhning, 1998, p. 5.

Source: Hugo/Stahl, 1997, p. 3.

Table 2.15. Migration flows in selected Asian countries/region, 1997 (in thousands)

(figures in brackets indicate percentage share of females among migrant workers)

Receiving country/region	Total	Sending country
Receiving country/region	Total	Bangladesh	China	Indonesia	Myanmar	Philippines	Thailand	Others
Hong Kong (China)	300	...	29	50 (90)	...	120 (95)	18 (95)	83
Japan	700	7 (0)	270 (25)	...	6	152 (95)	57 (95)	208
Rep. of Korea	267	...	77 (40)	15 (20)	...	38 (40)	15 (30)	122
Malaysia	1 700	300 (10)	...	755 (30)	40	275 (60)	112 (30)	218
Thailand	1 260	...	...	...	1 090 (38)	5	..	165
Singapore	450	...	46	100 (70)	...	60 (90)	60 (50)	184
Total	4 677	307	422	920	1 136	650	262	980
				(37)		(76)
Source: ILO estimates.

Table 2.16. Impact of the Asian financial crisis on migrant workers (in thousands)

(figures in brackets indicate percentage of the labour force)

Receiving country/region	Migrant workers
Receiving country/region	Pre-crisis (1997)	Mid-1998
Hong Kong (China)	300 (9.4)	300 (9.2)
Japan	700 (1.0)	680 (0.9)
Rep. of Korea	267 (1.2)	150 (0.7)
Malaysia	1 700 (19.8)	1 300 (14.7)
Singapore	450 (23.9)	400 (20.6)
Thailand	1 260 (3.7)	800 (2.3)
Total	4 677	3 630

Source: ILO estimates.

Updated by BB. Approved by BW. Last update: 11 May 2000.

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