2.6 Conclusion
In the mid-1990s, near-full employment conditions prevailed in just six economies (Japan, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Hong Kong [China]) of the Asia-Pacific region. In all other economies, employment conditions fell short C far short in many cases C of full employment. Besides, gender inequalities were significant in all countries and child labour was prevalent in all but the advanced industrialized countries of the region.
The long-term employment trends were favourable in the same set of six economies which achieved near-full employment conditions by the mid-1990s. In all the others, employment conditions either remained broadly unchanged or worsened. In Australia and New Zealand, high unemployment became a persistent problem and the incidence of precarious, part-time employment rose simultaneously. In transition economies, some East Asian economies and South Asian economies, the problem was one of deteriorating quality of employment rather than rising unemployment. Though employment growth kept pace with labour force growth in aggregate terms, growth of regular wage employment was slower than that of the labour force. Thus there was a steady growth of relatively low-quality employment C self-employment with a poor asset base, casual wage employment and regular but insecure wage employment in the informal sector. Another manifestation of the problem was the growth of migration in search of overseas employment from many of these countries.
Alongside these unfavourable employment trends, some positive trends were also observed in many countries. Gender inequalities, child labour and poverty were declining in virtually all the countries, though the pace of decline was much too slow in several cases.
Recent developments threaten to undo even the modest progress achieved over a long period. The Asian crisis has brought back problems of unemployment, underemployment and poverty in precisely the countries which had earlier made steady progress in eliminating them. Prospects of economic recovery in the crisis-affected countries seem uncertain at this point. Outside the crisis-affected countries, economic reforms in a context of globalization have exposed problems (such as that of redundant labour in the organized sector) carried over from the past. They have also created fresh uncertainties. There are apprehensions, for example, that pressures of global competition could lead to growth of capital intensity in the organized sector and thus to a further slowdown in the growth of regular wage employment. The overall short-term consequences of the reforms, therefore, are likely to include a slowdown in the growth of Agood@ jobs and increases in both open unemployment and underemployment. These circumstances could conceivably reverse the long-term declining trends in poverty, gender inequalities and child labour. The need to make employment growth the core objective of development strategies has rarely been greater.
Table 2.1. Gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP) per capita
in selected economies, 1980-98
|
Country/region |
GDP growth rate (per cent) |
Projections |
GNP per capita (US$) | ||||||
|
1980-90 |
1990-95 |
1985-95 |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 |
1995 | |||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | |||||||||
|
Australia |
3.4 |
3.5 |
3.0 |
3.7 |
3.1 |
3.6 |
18 720 | ||
|
Japan |
4.0 |
1.0 |
3.0 |
3.9 |
0.8 |
-2.5 |
39 640 | ||
|
New Zealand |
1.8 |
.. |
1.6 |
3.1 |
2.3 |
-0.5 |
14 340 | ||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | |||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
6.9 |
5.6 |
6.3 |
4.6 |
5.3 |
-5.0 |
22 990 | ||
|
Rep. of Korea |
9.4 |
7.2 |
8.7 |
7.1 |
5.9 |
-7.0 |
9 700 | ||
|
Malaysia |
5.2 |
8.7 |
7.7 |
8.6 |
7.8 |
-6.4 |
3 890 | ||
|
Singapore |
6.4 |
8.7 |
- |
6.9 |
7.8 |
0.0 |
26 730 | ||
|
Indonesia |
6.1 |
7.6 |
- |
8.0 |
4.7 |
-15.0 |
980 | ||
|
Philippines |
1.0 |
2.3 |
.. |
5.7 |
5.1 |
-0.6 |
1 050 | ||
|
Thailand |
7.6 |
8.4 |
.. |
5.5 |
-0.4 |
-8.0 |
2 740 | ||
|
Transition economies |
|||||||||
|
Cambodia |
.. |
6.4 |
.. |
6.0* |
3.0 |
.. |
270 | ||
|
China |
10.2 |
12.8 |
.. |
9.6 |
8.9 |
5.5 |
620 | ||
|
Lao PDR |
.. |
6.5 |
.. |
6.8* |
6.0 |
.. |
350 | ||
|
Mongolia |
5.5 |
-3.3 |
.. |
2.6* |
3.0 |
.. |
310 | ||
|
Viet Nam |
.. |
8.3 |
.. |
9.3 |
8.8 |
4.0 |
240 | ||
|
South Asian economies |
|||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
4.3 |
4.1 |
.. |
5.4 |
5.7 |
4.2 |
240 | ||
|
India |
5.8 |
4.6 |
.. |
7.5 |
5.6 |
4.8 |
340 | ||
|
Nepal |
4.6 |
5.1 |
4.7 |
6.1* |
4.9 |
6.0 |
200 | ||
|
Pakistan |
6.3 |
4.6 |
5.3 |
5.2 |
1.3 |
5.4 |
460 | ||
|
Sri Lanka |
4.2 |
4.8 |
.. |
3.8* |
6.2 |
6.5 |
700 | ||
|
South Pacific economies |
|||||||||
|
Fiji |
.. |
.. |
4.7 |
3.1* |
1.0 |
3.0 |
2 400 | ||
|
Papua New Guinea |
1.9 |
9.3 |
4.9 |
1.9* |
0.3 |
3.8 |
1 160 | ||
|
*Figures were taken from Economic Intelligence Unit Reports ( EIU), 1998. Sources: World Bank, World Development Report (WDR), 1996; OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ADB, EDRC Databank, 1998; IMF, World Economic Outlook, 1998; UNDP, Human Development Report (HDR), 1998. | |||||||||
Table 2.2. Population in selected economies, 1985-97
|
Country/region |
Population growth (per cent) |
Population (in millions) | |||
|
1985-95 |
1996 |
1997 |
1997 | ||
|
Advanced industrialized economies* | |||||
|
Australia |
1.5 |
-- |
1.2 |
19 | |
|
Japan |
0.6 |
-- |
0.3 |
126 | |
|
New Zealand |
0.8 |
-- |
1.2 |
4 | |
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | |||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
1.2 |
2.4 |
3.0 |
7 | |
|
Rep. of Korea |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
46 | |
|
Malaysia |
2.9 |
2.3 |
2.5 |
21 | |
|
Singapore |
1.5 |
1.9 |
2.0 |
3 | |
|
Indonesia |
1.6 |
1.6 |
1.6 |
200 | |
|
Philippines |
2.5 |
2.3 |
2.2 |
73 | |
|
Thailand |
1.7 |
-- |
1.7 |
61 | |
|
Transition economies |
|||||
|
Cambodia |
3.4 |
2.3 |
2.0 |
11 | |
|
China |
1.4 |
1.0 |
1.0 |
1 227 | |
|
Lao PDR |
2.7 |
2.5 |
.. |
5 | |
|
Mongolia |
2.0 |
1.7 |
2.6 |
3 | |
|
Viet Nam |
2.1 |
1.9 |
1.8 |
77 | |
|
South Asian economies |
|||||
|
Bangladesh |
2.0 |
1.9 |
1.9 |
124 | |
|
India |
2.2 |
2.0 |
2.0 |
961 | |
|
Nepal |
2.4 |
2.6 |
2.5 |
23 | |
|
Pakistan |
3.0 |
3.0 |
.. |
137 | |
|
Sri Lanka |
1.3 |
1.2 |
1.3 |
18 | |
|
South Pacific economies |
|||||
|
Fiji |
1.3 |
-2.3 |
.. |
0.8 | |
|
Papua New Guinea |
2.1 |
2.0 |
1.9 |
5 | |
|
*The reference periods for advanced industrial countries and Thailand are 1980-90, 1990-97. Sources: ADB, EDRC Databank, 1998; World Bank, WDR, 1998/1999. | |||||
Table 2.3. Labour force in selected economies, 1980-97
|
Country/region |
Total labour force growth (per cent) |
Female per centage of labour force | ||||||
|
1980-90 |
1990-95 |
1990-97 |
1980 |
1995 |
1997 | |||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | ||||||||
|
Australia |
2.3 |
1.4 |
1.3 |
37 |
43 |
43 | ||
|
Japan |
1.1 |
0.6 |
1.1 |
38 |
41 |
41 | ||
|
New Zealand |
2.0 |
1.5 |
1.4 |
34 |
44 |
44 | ||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | ||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
1.6 |
1.3 |
1.9 |
39 |
40 |
41 | ||
|
Rep. of Korea |
2.3 |
1.9 |
1.9 |
35 |
40 |
40 | ||
|
Malaysia |
2.8 |
2.7 |
2.7 |
35 |
37 |
37 | ||
|
Philippines |
2.9 |
2.7 |
2.7 |
47 |
46 |
46 | ||
|
Singapore |
2.3 |
1.7 |
1.7 |
34 |
37 |
38 | ||
|
Indonesia |
2.9 |
2.5 |
2.5 |
34 |
37 |
37 | ||
|
Philippines |
2.9 |
2.7 |
2.7 |
47 |
46 |
46 | ||
|
Thailand |
2.6 |
1.3 |
1.5 |
35 |
38 |
38 | ||
|
Transition economies |
||||||||
|
Cambodia |
2.8 |
2.5 |
2.4 |
56 |
53 |
53 | ||
|
China |
2.2 |
1.1 |
1.1 |
43 |
45 |
45 | ||
|
Lao PDR |
1.9 |
2.7 |
2.3 |
45 |
47 |
47 | ||
|
Mongolia |
3.1 |
2.9 |
2.9 |
46 |
46 |
46 | ||
|
Viet Nam |
2.7 |
1.9 |
2.0 |
48 |
49 |
49 | ||
|
South Asian economies |
||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
2.8 |
2.1 |
2.1 |
42 |
42 |
42 | ||
|
India |
1.8 |
2.2 |
2.2 |
34 |
32 |
32 | ||
|
Nepal |
2.4 |
2.4 |
2.5 |
39 |
40 |
40 | ||
|
Pakistan |
2.9 |
3.3 |
3.3 |
23 |
26 |
27 | ||
|
2.3 |
2.0 |
1.8 |
27 |
35 |
36 | |||
|
South Pacific economies |
||||||||
|
Fiji |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | ||
|
Papua New Guinea |
2.1 |
2.3 |
2.3 |
42 |
42 |
42 | ||
|
Sources: World Bank, WDR, 1997; 1998/1999; ILO-SAAT. | ||||||||
Table 2.4. Labour force participation rates in selected economies, 1980-96
|
Country/region |
1980 |
1996 |
1980 |
1996 | |||||
|
Total |
Total |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female | ||||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | |||||||||
|
Australia |
45.9 |
51.0 |
58.1 |
33.7 |
58.0 |
43.3 | |||
|
Japan |
49.0 |
53.8 |
61.9 |
36.6 |
64.4 |
43.0 | |||
|
New Zealand |
49.0 |
50.1 |
56.1 |
29.1 |
55.8 |
43.2 | |||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | |||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
49.2 |
52.9 |
62.2 |
35.2 |
63.6 |
39.6 | |||
|
Rep. of Korea |
40.8 |
51.1 |
49.5 |
31.9 |
58.3 |
40.4 | |||
|
Malaysia |
38.5 |
41.3 |
50.7 |
26.1 |
50.2 |
30.1 | |||
|
Singapore |
46.3 |
49.7 |
59.3 |
32.7 |
61.2 |
39.6 | |||
|
Indonesia |
39.5 |
48.4 |
51.5 |
27.7 |
56.2 |
37.2 | |||
|
Philippines |
39.0 |
42.2 |
50.6 |
27.4 |
51.4 |
31.1 | |||
|
Thailand |
52.2 |
60.6 |
54.8 |
49.5 |
63.8 |
55.2 | |||
|
Transition economies |
|||||||||
|
Cambodia |
54.0 |
52.4 |
52.1 |
55.7 |
51.4 |
52.3 | |||
|
China |
54.9 |
59.9 |
60.6 |
48.9 |
63.7 |
55.6 | |||
|
Lao PDR |
51.6 |
47.6 |
56.1 |
47.1 |
51.8 |
44.8 | |||
|
Mongolia |
46.4 |
50.1 |
50.3 |
42.5 |
51.6 |
45.5 | |||
|
Viet Nam |
47.7 |
51.5 |
51.1 |
44.5 |
52.5 |
49.4 | |||
|
South Asian economies |
|||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
47.1 |
52.8 |
52.7 |
41.2 |
56.6 |
43.5 | |||
|
India |
43.6 |
44.4 |
55.8 |
30.5 |
57.4 |
28.6 | |||
|
Nepal |
48.5 |
46.4 |
57.9 |
38.5 |
54.4 |
37.8 | |||
|
Pakistan |
35.4 |
37.5 |
52.2 |
16.9 |
51.8 |
20.3 | |||
|
Sri Lanka |
36.8 |
43.9 |
52.8 |
20.2 |
54.6 |
30.1 | |||
|
South Pacific economies |
|||||||||
|
Fiji |
32.1 |
40.6 |
52.4 |
11.2 |
53.9 |
21.7 | |||
|
Papua New Guinea |
49.3 |
49.2 |
54.8 |
43.2 |
55.4 |
42.4 | |||
|
Source: ILO, World Labour Report (WLR), 1997/1998. | |||||||||
Table 2.5. Employment by sector in selected economies, 1980-97 (per cent)
|
Country/region |
Agriculture |
Industry |
Services | |||||||||
|
1980 |
1990 |
1995-97 |
1980 |
1990 |
1995-97 |
1980 |
1990 |
1995-97 | ||||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | ||||||||||||
|
Australia |
6.5 |
5.4 |
5.1 |
30.9 |
24.9 |
22.5 |
62.6 |
68.8 |
72.2 | |||
|
Japan |
10.4 |
7.2 |
5.5 |
35.3 |
34.1 |
33.3 |
54.0 |
58.2 |
60.8 | |||
|
New Zealand |
10.9 |
10.6 |
9.5 |
33.8 |
24.6 |
24.7 |
55.3 |
64.4 |
65.5 | |||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | ||||||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
32.0 |
23.0 |
12.0 |
50.2 |
36.7 |
25.7 |
48.4 |
62.4 |
73.9 | |||
|
Rep. of Korea |
34.0 |
17.9 |
11.6 |
29.0 |
35.4 |
32.5 |
37.0 |
46.7 |
55.9 | |||
|
Malaysia |
37.2 |
26.0 |
19.4 |
24.1 |
27.5 |
32.2 |
38.7 |
46.5 |
48.4 | |||
|
Singapore |
1.3.0 |
0.5 |
0.2 |
35.7 |
36.2 |
30.2 |
62.6 |
63.4 |
69.6 | |||
|
Indonesia |
55.9 |
55.9 |
44.8 |
13.2 |
13.7 |
18.1 |
30.2 |
30.2 |
37.9 | |||
|
Philippines |
51.8 |
45.2 |
41.7 |
15.4 |
15.0 |
16.6 |
32.8 |
39.7 |
41.6 | |||
|
Thailand |
70.8 |
64.0 |
50.3 |
10.3 |
14.0 |
19.7 |
18.9 |
22.0 |
29.9 | |||
|
Transition economies |
||||||||||||
|
Cambodia |
76.0 |
74.0 |
75.0 |
6.6 |
7.5 |
4.5 |
17.7 |
18..7 |
20.5 | |||
|
China |
.. |
60.0 |
52.9 |
.. |
22.0 |
23.2 |
.. |
18.0 |
23.9 | |||
|
Lao PDR |
80.0 |
78.0 |
77.2 |
6.0 |
6.0 |
6.8 |
14.0 |
16.0 |
16.0 | |||
|
Mongolia |
39.8 |
32.7 |
45.2 |
21.0 |
25.2 |
13.2 |
39.2 |
41.8 |
41.6 | |||
|
Viet Nam |
73.2 |
71.3 |
70.7 |
13.2 |
14.0 |
10.4 |
13.6 |
14.7 |
18.9 | |||
|
South Asian economies |
||||||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
74.0 |
65.0 |
60.1 |
9.0 |
16.0 |
21.8 |
17.0 |
18.0 |
18.1 | |||
|
India |
70.0 |
64.0 |
60.1 |
6.0 |
16.0 |
18.1 |
24.0 |
20.0 |
21.8 | |||
|
Nepal |
91.0 |
81.0 |
.. |
1.0 |
4.0 |
.. |
8.0 |
16.0 |
.. | |||
|
Pakistan |
52.7 |
51.1 |
46.8 |
20.3 |
19.8 |
18.5 |
26.8 |
28.9 |
34.6 | |||
|
Sri Lanka |
44.2 |
.. |
32.8 |
18.6 |
20.6 |
22.4 |
29.3 |
30.3 |
38.8 | |||
|
South Pacific economies |
||||||||||||
|
Fiji |
.. |
46.0 |
44.0 |
.. |
15.0 |
14.0 |
.. |
39.0 |
41.0 | |||
|
Papua New Guinea |
83.0 |
79.0 |
77.0 |
6.0 |
7.0 |
7.0 |
.. |
14.0 |
16.0 | |||
|
Sources: ILO, database on key indicators of the labour market (KILM), 1998; ILO-SAAT data for China, India and Nepal; UNDP, HDR, 1997 data for Fiji, Papua New Guinea. | ||||||||||||
Table 2.6. Employment growth in selected economies, 1985-98 (per cent)
|
Country/region |
Employment growth | ||||
|
1985-95 |
1996 |
1997 |
1998* | ||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | |||||
|
Australia |
2.0 |
1.3 |
0.8 |
1.7 | |
|
Japan |
1.1 |
0.5 |
1.1 |
-0.1 | |
|
New Zealand |
0.5 |
3.4 |
0.5 |
0.7 | |
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | |||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
1.4 |
3.4 |
4.3 |
.. | |
|
Rep. of Korea |
3.1 |
1.9 |
1.5 |
-5.0 | |
|
Malaysia |
3.5 |
3.1 |
2.8 |
.. | |
|
Singapore |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Indonesia |
2.5 |
2.2 |
1.6 |
.. | |
|
The Philippines |
2.6 |
.. |
.. |
-1.0 | |
|
Thailand |
2.3 |
-1.5 |
-3.0 |
.. | |
|
Transition economies |
|||||
|
Cambodia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
China |
2.3 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Lao PDR |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Mongolia |
3.0 |
-0.4 |
-2.5 |
.. | |
|
Viet Nam |
2.9 |
3.5 |
3.4 |
.. | |
|
South Asian economies |
|||||
|
Bangladesh |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
India |
2.2 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Nepal |
2.9 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Pakistan |
2.1 |
3.0 |
0.8 |
.. | |
|
Sri Lanka |
0.8 |
2.7 |
1.3 |
.. | |
|
South Pacific economies |
|||||
|
Fiji |
2.0 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Papua New Guinea |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
* Provisional estimates. Sources: OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ADB, EDRC Databank,1998; ILO-SAAT. | |||||
Table 2.7. Rate of unemployment in selected economies, 1985-98 (per cent)
|
Country/region |
Average |
Unemployment rate | |||||
|
1985-95 |
1985 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 |
1998 | ||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | |||||||
|
Australia |
8.5 |
8.3 |
8.5 |
8.5 |
8.6 |
8.1 | |
|
Japan |
2.5 |
2.6 |
3.1 |
3.4 |
3.4 |
4.1 | |
|
New Zealand |
7.0 |
4.0 |
6.3 |
6.1 |
6.7 |
7.8 | |
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | |||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
-- |
3.2 |
3.2 |
2.8 |
2.2 |
5.0 | |
|
Rep. of Korea |
2.5 |
4.0 |
2.0 |
2.0 |
2.7 |
7.0 | |
|
Malaysia |
-- |
6.9 |
2.8 |
2.5 |
2.5 |
.. | |
|
Singapore |
-- |
4.1 |
2.7 |
3.0 |
2.4 |
4.4 | |
|
Indonesia |
-- |
2.1 |
.. |
4.9 |
4.7 |
20.0 | |
|
Philippines |
-- |
7.1 |
9.5 |
8.8 |
8.7 |
10.9 | |
|
Thailand |
-- |
3.7 |
1.1 |
2.6 |
2.2 |
4.8 | |
|
Transition economies |
|||||||
|
Cambodia |
-- |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
China* |
-- |
1.8 |
2.9 |
3.0 |
3.0 |
.. | |
|
Lao PDR |
-- |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Mongolia |
-- |
.. |
5.4 |
6.5 |
7.6 |
.. | |
|
Viet Nam |
-- |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
South Asian economies |
-- |
||||||
|
Bangladesh |
-- |
1.7 |
.. |
2.5 |
.. |
.. | |
|
India |
-- |
2.5 |
2.3 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Nepal |
-- |
3.1 |
.. |
4.9 |
.. |
.. | |
|
Pakistan |
-- |
3.7 |
5.4 |
5.4 |
5.4 |
.. | |
|
Sri Lanka |
-- |
14.1 |
12.5 |
11.5 |
10.4 |
.. | |
|
South Pacific economies | |||||||
|
Fiji |
-- |
7.9 |
6.0 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
Papua New Guinea |
-- |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |
|
* Urban unemployment. Sources: OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ILO, KILM database, 1998; ADB, EDRC Databank,1998; ILO studies; IMF, World Economic Outlook, 1998. | |||||||
Table 2.8. Rate of unemployment by sex in selected economies, 1990-97 (per cent)
|
Country/region |
1990 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 | |||||||
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female | ||||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | |||||||||||
|
Australia |
6.9 |
7.2 |
8.8 |
8.0 |
8.8 |
8.3 |
8.8 |
8.3 | |||
|
Japan |
2.1 |
2.3 |
3.1 |
3.2 |
3.4 |
3.3 |
3.3 |
3.4 | |||
|
New Zealand |
8.3 |
7.2 |
6.3 |
6.4 |
6.2 |
6.2 |
7.2 |
7.3 | |||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | |||||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
1.3 |
1.3 |
3.4 |
2.9 |
3.1 |
2.3 |
2.3 |
2.0 | |||
|
Rep. of Korea |
3.0 |
1.8 |
2.3 |
1.7 |
2.4 |
1.6 |
2.8 |
2.4 | |||
|
Malaysia |
0.1 |
1.0 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Singapore |
1.9 |
1.3 |
2.7 |
2.8 |
2.9 |
3.1 |
2.4 |
2.4 | |||
|
Indonesia |
2.4 |
2.6 |
4.1 |
5.6 |
4.2 |
6.0 |
4.1 |
5.6 | |||
|
Philippines |
7.1 |
9.8 |
7.7 |
9.4 |
7.0 |
8.2 |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Thailand |
0.1 |
2.4 |
0.9 |
1.4 |
1.5 |
2.0 |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Transition economies |
|||||||||||
|
Cambodia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
China |
0.9 |
1.2 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Laos |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Mongolia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Viet Nam |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
South Asian economies |
.. |
.. | |||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
2.0 |
1.9 |
.. |
.. |
2.7 |
2.3 |
.. |
.. | |||
|
India |
.. |
.. |
2.6 |
1.8 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Nepal |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
4.9 |
5.5 |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Pakistan |
4.5 |
16.8 |
4.1 |
13.7 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Sri Lanka |
9.1 |
23.5 |
8.8 |
19.7 |
8.0 |
17.6 |
.. |
.. | |||
|
South Pacific economies |
|||||||||||
|
Fiji |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Papua New Guinea |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Sources: OECD, Employment Outlook, 1998; ILO, Year Book of Labour Statistics 1997; ILO, KILM database, 1998; ILO-SAAT. | |||||||||||
Table 2.9. Sectoral employment disaggregated by sex in selected economies,
around 1995 (per cent)
|
Country/region |
Agriculture |
Industry |
Services | ||||||
|
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female |
Male |
Female | ||||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | |||||||||
|
Australia |
6.0 |
3.6 |
31.5 |
11.4 |
62.2 |
84.7 | |||
|
Japan |
5.2 |
6.5 |
39.4 |
25.0 |
55.1 |
68.2 | |||
|
New Zealand |
12.1 |
6.6 |
33.5 |
14.4 |
54.2 |
78.9 | |||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | |||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
0.7 |
0.4 |
32.2 |
18.7 |
67.1 |
80.9 | |||
|
Rep. of Korea |
11.0 |
14.7 |
39.6 |
23.7 |
49.4 |
61.6 | |||
|
Malaysia |
21.6 |
16.9 |
32.8 |
31.4 |
45.6 |
51.8 | |||
|
Singapore |
0.3 |
0.1 |
33.3 |
26.1 |
66.5 |
73.8 | |||
|
Indonesia |
43.4 |
45.0 |
19.5 |
15.9 |
37.1 |
39.1 | |||
|
Philippines |
51.7 |
31.1 |
17.0 |
13.2 |
31.2 |
55.6 | |||
|
Thailand |
55.1 |
57.0 |
20.2 |
15.4 |
24.6 |
27.5 | |||
|
Transition economies |
|||||||||
|
Cambodia |
70.8 |
79.0 |
5.8 |
3.3 |
23.4 |
17.8 | |||
|
China |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Lao PDR |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Mongolia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Viet Nam |
70.2 |
71.1 |
12.3 |
8.6 |
17.5 |
20.2 | |||
|
South Asian economies |
|||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
54.4 |
77.5 |
10.8 |
7.6 |
33.7 |
11.0 | |||
|
India |
56.9 |
74.5 |
16.9 |
12.2 |
26.2 |
13.3 | |||
|
Nepal |
74.9 |
90.5 |
5.8 |
1.6 |
21.4 |
8.1 | |||
|
Pakistan |
43.9 |
67.4 |
19.6 |
10.7 |
36.4 |
21.9 | |||
|
Sri Lanka |
35.5 |
41.5 |
21.0 |
28.7 |
36.3 |
27.6 | |||
|
South Pacific economies |
|||||||||
|
Fiji |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Papua New Guinea |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Sources: ILO, KILM database, 1998; ILO-SAAT. | |||||||||
Table 2.10. Women's average wage as a percentage of men's in manufacturing
in selected economies, 1990-96
|
Country/region |
1990 |
1991 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 | ||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | ||||||||
|
Australia |
82.5 |
.. |
.. |
85.4 |
.. |
.. | ||
|
Japan |
.. |
.. |
.. |
55.4 |
55.9 |
56.4 | ||
|
New Zealand |
74.9 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
78.6 | ||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | ||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
69.3 |
.. |
56.9 |
67.9 |
65.3 |
63.5 | ||
|
Rep. of Korea |
50.3 |
.. |
52.2 |
52.9 |
54.1 |
54.4 | ||
|
Malaysia |
50.0 |
.. |
56.6 |
58.3 |
.. |
.. | ||
|
Singapore |
54.7 |
.. |
57.1 |
57.2 |
58.3 |
59.5 | ||
|
Philippines |
.. |
.. |
76.2 |
.. |
.. |
.. | ||
|
Thailand |
.. |
63.8 |
.. |
71.4 |
.. |
.. | ||
|
South Asian economies |
||||||||
|
Sri Lanka |
.. |
.. |
87.9 |
86.3 |
89.8 |
91.5 | ||
|
Source: ILO, Year Book of Labour Statistics, 1997. | ||||||||
Table 2.11. Percentage of labour force underemployed* in selected economies, 1995-97
|
Country/region |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 | |||||||||
|
Total |
Male |
Female |
Total |
Male |
Female |
Total |
Male |
Female | ||||
|
Advanced industrialized economies | ||||||||||||
|
Australia |
25.6 |
14.2 |
40.9 |
26.2 |
14.9 |
41.3 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Japan |
20.1 |
10.1 |
34.9 |
21.8 |
11.7 |
36.6 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
New Zealand |
21.5 |
10.0 |
36.1 |
21.4 |
10.4 |
37.3 |
21.2 |
10.9 |
37.4 | |||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | ||||||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Rep. of Korea |
4.4 |
2.9 |
6.7 |
4.4 |
2.7 |
6.9 |
5.1 |
3.3 |
7.8 | |||
|
Malaysia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Singapore |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Indonesia |
39.0 |
30.2 |
53.3 |
38.9 |
29.5 |
54.0 |
36.7 |
27.5 |
51.6 | |||
|
Philippines |
20.0 |
21.8 |
16.9 |
21.0 |
23.0 |
17.7 |
23.4 |
25.4 |
17.5 | |||
|
Thailand |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Transition economies |
||||||||||||
|
Cambodia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
China |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Lao PDR |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Mongolia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Viet Nam |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
South Asian economies |
||||||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
34.6 |
12.4 |
70.7 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
40.0 |
.. |
.. | |||
|
India |
25.0 |
14.1 |
55.1 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Nepal |
47.0 |
39.7 |
54.6 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Pakistan |
15.3 |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Sri Lanka |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
36.1 |
34.6 |
39.8 | |||
|
South Pacific economies |
||||||||||||
|
Fiji |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Papua New Guinea |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
*Here, for industrialized countries, underemployment refers to part-time employment. Except for India and Sri Lanka, the underemployed are those who worked less than 35 hours per week. In the case of India, the underemployed are those working for a part of the reference period, while in Sri Lanka the underemployed are those working less than 40 hours per week. Sources: OECD, Economic Outlook, 1998; ILO-SAAT. | ||||||||||||
Table 2.12. Labour force participation rate of children (between 10 and 14 years of age)
in selected countries, 1995
|
Country |
% |
|||
|
Bangladesh |
30 |
|||
|
China |
12 |
|||
|
India |
14 |
|||
|
Indonesia |
10 |
|||
|
Japan |
0 |
|||
|
Malaysia |
3 |
|||
|
Nepal |
45 |
|||
|
Pakistan |
18 |
|||
|
Philippines |
8 |
|||
|
Thailand |
16 |
|||
|
Viet Nam |
9 |
|||
|
Source: ILO, 1995: Estimates and projections, 1950-2010. | ||||
Table 2.13. Incidence of poverty in selected economies, 1985-96
|
Country/region |
Population below poverty line (per cent) | |||||||||
|
1985 (around) |
1995 (around) |
1996 | ||||||||
|
Total |
Rural |
Urban |
Total |
Rural |
Urban |
Total | ||||
|
East and Southeast Asian economies | ||||||||||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Rep. of Korea |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Malaysia |
19.6 (1984) |
27.6 |
6.5 |
4.0 |
6.5 |
1.9 |
.. | |||
|
Singapore |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Indonesia |
22.6 (1984) |
23.1 |
21.2 |
13.8 (1993) |
14.2 |
13.1 |
11.3 | |||
|
Philippines |
53.9 (1985) |
.. |
.. |
48.5 (1994) |
.. |
.. |
35.5 | |||
|
Thailand |
34.0 (1986) |
.. |
.. |
13.1 (1992) |
.. |
.. |
11.4 | |||
|
Transition economies |
||||||||||
|
Cambodia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
China |
24.9 (1985) |
24.5 |
26.2 |
19.7 (1994) |
23.0 |
12.0 |
.. | |||
|
Lao PDR |
.. |
.. |
.. |
46.1 (1993)* |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Mongolia |
.. |
.. |
.. |
36.3* |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Viet Nam |
.. |
.. |
.. |
42.2 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
South Asian economies |
||||||||||
|
Bangladesh |
45.7 (1983/84) |
46.3 |
43.4 |
42.2 (1988/89) |
43.4 |
36.9 |
.. | |||
|
India |
33.1 (1983/84) |
31.4 |
38.3 |
23.7 (1993/94) |
21.1 |
30.9 |
.. | |||
|
Nepal |
42.6 (1984/85) |
43.1 |
19.2 |
42.0 |
44.0 |
23.0 |
.. | |||
|
Pakistan |
24.5 (1984/85) |
25.9 |
21.2 |
20.6 (1992/93) |
23.3 |
15.5 |
.. | |||
|
Sri Lanka |
27.3 (1985/86) |
31.7 |
16.4 |
22.4 (1990/91) |
24.4 |
18.3 |
.. | |||
|
South Pacific economies |
||||||||||
|
Fiji |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
Papua New Guinea |
.. |
.. |
.. |
41.0 |
.. |
.. |
.. | |||
|
*World Bank, WDR, 1998/1999. The ILO estimates are based on national poverty lines, with generally around 2,100 calories per day as the norm. These estimates consequently are broadly comparable both cross-sectionally and intertemporally. The World Bank estimates take US$1 per day as the poverty line. Source: ILO-SAAT estimates. | ||||||||||
Table 2.14. Number of overseas migrants from major labour exporting countries in Asia,
various years
|
Country |
Year |
Main destinations |
Overseas migrants |
|
India Pakistan Bangladesh Sri Lanka Myanmar Philippines Thailand Indonesia |
1992 1992 1992 1992 1996 1997 1995 1997 |
Middle East Middle East Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand Thailand Hong Kong (China), Middle East, Japan, Taiwan (China), Singapore Middle East, Japan, Taiwan (China), Singapore, Brunei Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong (China) |
1 426 438 828 184 507 934 452 964 415 000 6 100 000 (6 445 400*) 202 296 2 404 000 |
|
*Estimated numbers of regular and irregular Filipino migrant workers: see Böhning, 1998, p. 5. Source: Hugo/Stahl, 1997, p. 3. | |||
Table 2.15. Migration flows in selected Asian countries/region, 1997 (in thousands)
(figures in brackets indicate percentage share of females among migrant workers)
|
Receiving country/region |
Total |
Sending country | ||||||
|
Bangladesh |
China |
Indonesia |
Myanmar |
Philippines |
Thailand |
Others | ||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
300 |
... |
29 |
50 (90) |
... |
120 (95) |
18 (95) |
83 |
|
Japan |
700 |
7 (0) |
270 (25) |
... |
6 |
152 (95) |
57 (95) |
208 |
|
Rep. of Korea |
267 |
... |
77 (40) |
15 (20) |
... |
38 (40) |
15 (30) |
122 |
|
Malaysia |
1 700 |
300 (10) |
... |
755 (30) |
40 |
275 (60) |
112 (30) |
218 |
|
Thailand |
1 260 |
... |
... |
... |
1 090 (38) |
5 |
.. |
165 |
|
Singapore |
450 |
... |
46 |
100 (70) |
... |
60 (90) |
60 (50) |
184 |
|
Total |
4 677 |
307 |
422 |
920 |
1 136 |
650 |
262 |
980 |
|
(37) |
(76) |
|||||||
|
Source: ILO estimates. | ||||||||
Table 2.16. Impact of the Asian financial crisis on migrant workers (in thousands)
(figures in brackets indicate percentage of the labour force)
|
Receiving country/region |
Migrant workers | |||
|
Pre-crisis (1997) |
Mid-1998 | |||
|
Hong Kong (China) |
300 (9.4) |
300 (9.2) | ||
|
Japan |
700 (1.0) |
680 (0.9) | ||
|
Rep. of Korea |
267 (1.2) |
150 (0.7) | ||
|
Malaysia |
1 700 (19.8) |
1 300 (14.7) | ||
|
Singapore |
450 (23.9) |
400 (20.6) | ||
|
Thailand |
1 260 (3.7) |
800 (2.3) | ||
|
Total |
4 677 |
3 630 | ||
|
Source: ILO estimates. | ||||