Introduction

Since the introduction of the first long-term development plan in 1969, Bali's development has rested on its three economic resources: agriculture in the broad sense; cultural tourism, coloured by the island's Hindu culture and religion; and small-scale handicraft and cottage industries. The 1969 plan provided for development periods of 25 years, broken down into 5-year development plans and 1-year development programmes. The first 25-year period ended in 1994. Thus we are now in the fourth year of the sixth 5-year development plan, which is the first in the second long-term period.

Many construction projects have been carried out to support the plans. In the tourism sector, they include hotels, restaurants and tourist attractions, and the supportive infrastructure for tourism; in agriculture, primary to tertiary irrigation systems and dams; and in the third sector mentioned above, small factories, workshops and sales premises.

The projects have ranged from traditional buildings designed and constructed by Balinese traditional architects and carpenters and using traditional materials to modern construction projects planned by modern architects and employing sophisticated technology and the latest materials. The processes involved range from traditional, manual, heavy physical labour to mechanized and semi-automated work using electrically powered machines. Both manual lifting and carrying and such work employing tractors and trucks are a common sight today.

As far as utilization of time is concerned, we can observe two trends. Some buildings have been constructed very quickly and finished on schedule, while other projects have proceeded slowly, the process being affected by the choice of propitious days in the Balinese calendar.

Regardless of the methods employed, it seems, however, that inhumane work methods, processes, postures, organization and environments are still widespread. This is true despite the fact that campaigns, education, training and awareness programmes in the area of occupational health, ergonomics and safety have been conducted intensively, regularly and continuously since the 1970s.

It sometimes seems as if ultimately all our efforts are practically useless in terms of optimum achievement, as we still very often have to contend with the same old working conditions and environments, which are ergonomically unfavourable. This paper attempts to shed light on existing ergonomic problems in the construction sector in Bali, and on the efforts made so far to find solutions.

Challenges

In our discussion of the problems, we shall talk first about the external stresses placed on workers. These result from the work itself and the way in which it is organized, and from the environment in which it is performed. We shall then deal with internal stresses resulting from such factors as desires, perceptions, wishes, taboos, beliefs and needs. Finally, we shall discuss influences such as the general political and economic situation, corporate culture and management style, a particular enterprise's economic situation, and industrial relations between workers and management.

As far as the work itself is concerned, heavy manual tasks such as lifting and carrying and unnatural working postures sometimes even forced ones are still to be found. The equipment used is frequently inappropriate, and this leads to unproductive, fatiguing work as wellas causing accidents.

In the case of work organization, long working hours without rest pauses are still a common phenomenon, especially among pieceworkers. But the imbalance between energy intake and output means that workers cannot maintain the pace throughout the working period: In the morning they usually work at a good pace, but after two to three hours they slow down. This slow pace is then maintained for the rest of working day, the only goal being to remain at the workplace during formal working hours. The problem very often stems from inadequate food intake, meals being usually taken only twice a day: in the morning and before leaving the workplace in the afternoon. This is understandable, as remuneration is too low and is only now being improved as a result of government regulations.

In some cases the constraints of schedules make night and shift work necessary, but rotation is not organized properly. Workers very often complain of fatigue and lack of sleep, which have a negative effect on both their physical and mental health. As far as the environment is concerned, working under very hot and humid conditions is the normal daily lot of construction workers in Bali.

An unusual feature of the Balinese labour force is that women play an important role in the construction sector. Though the types of work that they do differ from those of male workers, they sometimes also have to perform physically demanding tasks.

When considering internal stresses, it must be understood that most Balinese are Hindus and that this affects their perception of what work and time are. Although this perception has changed considerably in recent times, it still sometimes causes problems. Balinese Hindus believe that life in this world is only a passing phase, and as a result they are not very materially oriented. However, especially among the younger generation, this attitude has recently been giving way to considerations of how to acquire large amounts of money in a short time. Perception is influenced by beliefs and needs, which vary according to both nature and nurture. Education and information can change this perception, gradually giving it a more economic and environmental perspective.

When decisions are being made at the plant level, factors such as the enterprise's recent economic performance, existing government regulations, available markets and competitors have a great influence very often so great that nothing changes: The first priority may be survival and not the improvement of working conditions; changes are too risky.

Quite often there is the view that current procedures are good because this is the way that things have always been done. "So why fix it?" is the first question when any innovations are suggested. It is thus very difficult to change traditional methods of working unless one can point to positive future results.

Solutions

The steps to be taken must be based on the situation. There should first be an awareness programme, and then examples should be used to show that a change is easy, cheap and suited to the technology owned. A holistic, systemic and interdisciplinary approach must be applied comprehensively, using appropriate technology assessment in transferring or selecting the technology. To be holistic, systemic and interdisciplinary, the approach should involve six criteria: the innovation must be sound: i) technically; ii) economically; iii) ergonomically; and iv) socially and/or culturally; v) the innovation must save energy; and vi) the innovation must not harm the environment.

In this instance, the awareness campaign involved an ergonomics programme broadcast every two weeks from 1978 to 1984 by TV Denpasar in the form of a Development Programme'. Viewers were presented with ergonomic success stories, the aim being to encourage imitation in homes and firms. This was a very successful campaign, because around 3,000 television sets had been installed by the government in "banjar" community houses throughout Bali, and TV Denpasar had no competitor at the time.

Many ergonomically sound examples have been developed, not only in office buildings, hotel laundries and so forth but also in various villages, in such trades as blacksmithing, weaving and the making of roof and floor tiles. The regional office of Industrial Hygiene, Occupational Health and Safety was ergonomically designed, additional features being its Balinese architectural image and its anti-earthquake construction. It has become a real example for other new buildings within the Denpasar Civic Centre area.

In order to make key persons more conscious about ergonomics, there have been intensive education and training activities since 1970. At the University of Udayana, ergonomics was introduced as a subject in the technical as well as the medical faculty. As most of the technical students also hold part-time employment in firms or development programmes, it was hoped that such education would induce them to put their knowledge of ergonomics to practical use in the construction projects with which they came into contact. And this in fact happened: most of the buildings within the Denpasar Civic Centre area had ergonomically sound characteristics. One of the buildings which should be mentioned is that of the local Tourism Office, which takes great advantage of natural lighting and ventilation.

As training activities on ergonomics for decision-makers in the construction sector were carried out at these two buildings, the people involved will be exposed to practical examples of how ergonomics can really be implemented and can provide comfortable conditions for users. Most important, too, is that this experience will convince them that ergonomics can be incorporated into the project during the planning phase of the design and construction itself, i.e. that ergonomics can be made a built-in issue.

As financial constraint will be the most crucial issue for small-scale industry and cottage industry, the government should create a policy for assisting them by providing loan capital, which must be used holistically to improve working conditions and the work environment. Otherwise the improved economic status of the firms themselves will not lead to ergonomic improvements. Let us consider, as an example, a firm that needs a machine or a table or a workplace. The solution must be ergonomically sound from the beginning, if government-provided loan capital is to be used for the acquisition. Within the construction sector, this approach must be followed in firms where the work done is linked with handicrafts, agriculture and small contractors. With regard to larger enterprises carrying out various types of major construction projects, such as road work and building construction, the most feasible improvements would be: arrangement of better working hours and rest pauses; training in better working postures; or provision of increased support and advice on natural working positions.

When a project concerns a plant, attention should be paid to solutions where layout of materials, work processes and work methods are all ergonomically sound; thus the ergonomic design will mean that work could be done in a manner that is both more humane and more productive. This is not an easy task, as it calls for change in habits and attitudes, which have already been subjected to years of conditioning. Hard work and much insight must be continued consistently in order to overcome such problems.

Conclusion

Development with the aim of enhancing the quality of life of the people is always being supported by physical development in the construction sector. Whatever the character of the construction project is, the ergonomic problems that are encountered are mostly related to poor working posture, work procedure, work organization, and the work environment. These problems need to be solved holistically, systematically and by means of an interdisciplinary approach incorporating comprehensive assessment of the six criteria that is, the solution must be sound technically, economically, ergonomically, and socially and/or culturally, it must save energy, and it must preserve the environment. To be sustained, the effort must be carried out consistently and continuously, as there are always problems. Finally, those lacking capital especially in agriculture, small-scale industry, and cottage industry must be given capital assistance, and the capital assistance must have a built-in ergonomic content in order to ensure that use of the capital is both effective and efficient.

Adnyana Manuaba
Department of Physiology
School of Medicine
University of Udayana
Jalan Serma Gede 18
Denpasar, Bali 80114
Indonesia
E-mail:adman@denpasar.wasantara.net.id

Updated by PAP/SUT/TRS. Approved by BKL. Last updated on 7 February 2001

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