Sri Lanka Tea Plantation Occupational Safety and Health EFC - Asian-Pacific Newsletter on Occupational Health and Safety

There is an acute shortage of information relating to safety and health in the tea growing and manufacturing sector, though this is still a major foreign exchange contributor to the national economy in Sri Lanka. Many mechanical and chemical hazards exist in the plantations, where a large number of unskilled and semi-skilled workers are employed. Due to management and worker ignorance, negligent use of fertilizers and pest and weed controlling chemicals and bad work practices in some estate factories, serious hazards have been created and many accidents have occurred. About 15% of the total poisonings and deaths in Sri Lanka are caused due to occupational accidents due to the intake of harmful substances. The impact of these harmful substances that enter the environment is yet to be quantified.

Development objective

The Survey and the findings would assist in the on-going national effort in improving the standard of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) in Sri Lanka. It could be used as information, or conclusions in order to create awareness of existing OSH problems and to find solutions, where necessary to enhance safety and health standards.

Immediate objectives

The report is a compilation of OSH information and accident data from 161 tea growing and manufacturing estates. The findings would assist the Member Companies to reduce OSH and accident related costs, by providing solutions to the vital aspects of safety that are highlighted in this study. The sample selected for this study represents different estates, which vary from size, number of employees, the degree of hazards, the level safety awareness, safety standards and number of accidents.
Another objective would be to provide information to other interested parties. The authorities responsible for safety and health find it difficult, or do not have the capacity, to monitor such information, especially after privatization. The availability of safety information with the EFC would assist the Government and, perhaps even the ILO, in looking at these issues objectively and finding suitable remedies.
Another purpose is to attempt to link up with other agencies that are involved with OSH in Sri Lanka in order to exchange and inter-link information and resources relating to OSH on the plantations.
Lastly the data would be used as a tool to eventually train Management Personnel, particularly Superintendents, involved in OSH in the plantations. In turn they would be able to impart knowledge on proper OSH practices among estate workers in order to minimize hazards and prevent future accidents.

Methodology

Phase I of the project involved an extensive survey among the tea estates managed by 21 Plantation Management Companies, who are members of The Employer's Federation of Ceylon. The estates surveyed are located in the Central hills, Sabaragamuwa, Western, Uva and Southern provinces in Sri Lanka.

A comprehensive questionnaire seeking information on prevalent occupational safety and health standards and accident records for the year 1996 and for the first half of 1997 was designed for this purpose by the EFC.

The questionnaire was sent to 408 tea estates managed by 21 Plantation Management Companies in December'97. It sought information on the number of work related accidents that occurred in the estate factory and the field, the nature of injury to the workman, the area of the anatomy to which the injury was caused, the cause of injury, the number of days of work lost due to work related accidents, the number of victims, severity of the injury, amounts paid as medical costs or compensation, and, information on safety training, health and welfare. (Copy of questionnaire annexed)

161 estates submitted completed responses. Thus a 39% response was achieved at the end of the survey.

Based on some further suggestions by Dr. Ranjith De Alwis, Deputy Commissioner, Occupational Hygiene Division of the Department of Labour, and Safety and Health Consultant to the ILO, an additional questionnaire was sent in March '98, to the estates that responded to the initial questionnaire. (Copy of the additional questionnaire annexed) This questionnaire sought information on accident records and investigation, types of fertilizer, insecticides and fungicides used, the number of workers involved in tasks such as spraying, use of personal protective equipment, and, safety and health training programmes.

It was envisaged that the responses could be obtained by April'98. However, due to an unforeseen postal delay of two months, all responses to the additional questionnaire were not received by the project completion date of 31^st May 1998. Reminders were sent to the respondents requesting them to submit their completed responses once again. The final report was completed by the 30^th of June 1998.

The responses indicate that, there is much enthusiasm in participating in projects such as this, and to share information on health and safety levels on the plantations. It is been very satisfactory to achieve a response rate of 39%, particularly considering the fact that many estates do not maintain or have up-to-date health and safety records.

It is also encouraging to note that a few estates surveyed have a very impressive safety record with no OSH problems or accidents being reported during the period covered by the survey.

Tea plantations in Sri Lanka

The growing of tea in Sri Lanka commenced in 1867 and emerged as the major plantation crop after coffee plantations were destroyed by coffee leaf blight. In the beginning, a migrant labour force of nearly 150,000 persons was brought to the country from South India to be employed on the plantations. For a long period the plantation sector was the primary sector that offered the highest level of regular employment. In 1953, the contribution of the plantation sector to total employment in the economy was 29%. In 1996, it had declined to 20%. In terms of providing a livelihood to people in the country, this sector is second only to the rice-growing sector.

Changes in management and ownership

As the tea sector experienced problems of management and profit making under State ownership, a restructuring program was initiated in 1992. Twenty-three Regional Plantation Companies were formed. The management of the estates was handed over to Private Management Companies on a profit sharing basis for a five-year contract period. These management companies did not have a stake in the ownership and the management contracts were short termed. Hence, there was a disincentive to invest in capital expenditure, which was vital for the development of the sector.

In 1995, a major structural change took place, and shares in the Regional Plantation Companies were sold to the Private Sector. It was anticipated that private sector participation would encourage investment in fertilizer application, replanting and investment in new plant and machinery.

Contribution to the national economy

The tea industry has contributed immensely towards the foreign exchange earnings of the country and was the single largest foreign exchange earner for a considerable period of time. However, the tea sector, which played a dominant role in the economy in the past, has now shown a declining trend. The contribution to the GDP from the tea sector, which stood at around 8% in the early 1950s, had declined to 1.5% of the GDP by 1996.

Location of tea plantations

Tea grown in Sri Lanka is divided into two categories. Depending on the elevation of growth, tea is categorized as high grown and low grown. The area under tea plantations increased from 225,000 hectares in 1950 to the highest level of 245,000 hectares in 1981. However, it had declined to 188,000 hectares by 1996. Marginal tea lands have been used for other crops and housing. Tea growing was earlier concentrated in the mid elevations (600-1,200 meters) and higher elevations (1,200 meters and above). Tea growing has extended to low elevations (600 meters and below) gradually. The distribution of tea lands in Sri Lanka is mainly among the Central hills, Sabaragamuwa, Uva, Southern districts of Galle and Matara and in some areas of the southwestern slopes of the island.

The sample

One hundred and sixty one (161) tea estates were selected as the sample for the purpose of this study. These estates vary by land extent and location, people employed, amount of chemicals and fertilizers used in the fields, safety levels, accident statistics, and, safety awareness and training.

The following table indicates the number of estates selected from each planting region and the administrative district to which the estate belongs

District or Region	Province	No. of estates covered	% of sample from area
Dickoya	Central	1	0.62%
Hatton	Central	2	1.24%
Kandy	Central	5	3.1%
Maskeliya	Central	2	1.24%
Matale	Central	4	2.4%
Nuwara Eliya	Central	42	26%
Kegalle	Sabaragamuwa	25	15.5%
Ratnapura	Sabaragamuwa	20	12.4%
Galle	Southern	7	4.3%
Matara	Southern	6	3.7%
Badulla	Uva	33	20.4%
Hanwella	Western	1	0.62%
Kalutara	Western	13	8%

The majority of the estates included were from the Central and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. A total of 56 (35%) estates were included from the Central Province, while, 45 (28%) estates were included from the Sabaragamuwa Province. 33 (20%) estates were from tea plantations in the Uva Province, 14 (9%) estates from the Western province, and, 13 (8%) from the Southern Province.

Tea production

The manufacture of tea increased from 136 Million Kilograms in 1948 to 258 Million Kilograms in 1996. A clear improvement in tea production was witnessed after the Privatization of the industry. Productivity in the tea sector has also increased. The average yield has increased from about 650 Kilograms per hectare in the early 1950s to about 1,500 Kilograms per hectare in 1996. At present, Sri Lanka is the leading tea supplier to the world with an approximate market share of 21%.

Employment in the tea plantations

Of a total labour force of approximately 400,000, there are approximately 280,000 workers, including casual workers employed by the Plantation Management Companies, who are members of The Employer's of Ceylon. This is about 70% total plantation labour in the country.

Employees covered by the survey

Approximately 115,000 employees are employed in the 161 estates that were included in the survey, which is nearly 29% of the total workforce employed in the tea sector. The number of employees covered in the survey consisted of 51,175 (44.5%) male workers, 61,525 (53.5%) female workers and 2,070 (1.8%) child workers (children above the age of 14 years and up-to 16 years).

Approximately 102,350 (89%) of the total labour were employed in the fields, of which 42% are males, 56% are females and 1.8% are considered children. Nearly 7,590 (6.6%) of the total employees covered, were employed in the estate factory which carries out the entire manufacturing process of tea. Of this figure 62.5% were males and 36% were females. Nearly 2% were children.

Safety and health in the tea plantations

Like in any other employment sector, workers in the tea plantations run an equal if not higher risk of being injured as a result of the type of work they do. The main risks posed are from unguarded machinery in the factory, exposures to fertilizers, pesticides and other agro-chemicals, and, accidents caused as a result of the terrain in the fields. Most of the field workers are required to work on high altitudes and uneven terrain under wet weather conditions.

Many chemical hazards exist in the plantations. Although Sri Lanka does not manufacture chemicals, they are widely used in all economic activities today. About 200 varieties of pesticides are formulated in the country. Large quantities of pesticides and fertilizers are used in the agriculture sector, where 37% of the labour force was employed by the end of 1997. Occupational diseases resulting from exposure to chemicals are also under-reported or not reported at all, possibly due to poor diagnosis. From the large number of cases of acute pesticide poisoning it could be presumed that many thousands of cases of chronic poisoning are not even diagnosed. It appears to be obvious therefore, that there is a need to take action in the field of chemical safety and prevention of major occupational diseases and accidents at a national level.

The high number of cases of pesticide poisoning clearly indicates that safety awareness in the use of chemicals is rather low. Sri Lanka being a primarily agriculture-based society lacks the necessary safety training and education. According to the Health Ministry's statistics on pesticide poisoning, in 1993 the number of reported deaths was 3477. This figure had declined to 1677 in 1995, which is a positive sign in the effort to increase safety levels in the agricultural sector.

In the plantation sector large quantities of chemicals are used as fertilizers and pesticides. Many accidents have taken place among the users of these pesticides, who are mainly estate labourers and their families. Many different varieties of pesticides, weedicides and fertilizers are used in the plantations every day. The quantities used vary from estate to estate. These pesticides and fungicides, most often, are not transported and stored in a safe manner. Unauthorized or poorly trained persons are sometimes involved in preparation of pesticides. In the mixing of concentrate, safety precautions are often neglected by these persons. Measuring utensils and personal protective equipment are improperly used or not used at all, thereby causing serious exposure hazards. There are instances where entire communities have been affected due to fungicide sprays contaminating waterways and wells. There have also been instances of plantation workers being poisoned after consuming food in the fields that were contaminated by chemicals.

Government agencies responsible for occupational safety and health in Sri Lanka

The Factories Division and the Occupational Hygiene Division of the Department of Labour are statutorily responsible for the implementation of Occupational Safety and Health Programmes in Sri Lanka. The main function of the Factories Division is the enforcement of the Factories Ordinance through inspection, advisory services and legal action where necessary. Its' functions are regionalised, and, all factories operating within the regions are required to register, and report work related accidents to the Factories Division.

The Labour Medical Office, which was established in 1945, gradually developed as the Division of Occupation of Hygiene. The main activities of this Division are to provide laboratory and advisory services on OSH, set standards, knowledge and education in OSH, research, and information services. The Division is also responsible in coordinating all national referral and research laboratories in occupational and environment hygiene, with special reference to industrial effluents, air pollution, agro-chemicals and statistical surveillance. It also provides advisory services on pollution control for ensuring safe and healthy work places and environments. The Hygiene Division is instrumental in defining national problems in workers health and hygiene, developing research and action programmes to counter such problems, establishing national OSH standards and organizing training activities.

Legislation in Sri Lanka relating to occupational safety and health and occupational hygiene

The principal Legislation in Sri Lanka relating to safety of workers is embodied in the Factories Ordinance Act No. 45 of 1942 and subsequent amendments. However, there are other pieces of Legislation that includes sections on welfare of employees, sanitation, safety and accident prevention to a certain extent. The payment of compensation to injured workers is defined in the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance Act No 19 of 1934 and its subsequent amendments.

Safety and health legislation was first introduced in Sri Lanka in 1896 with the enactment of the Mines and Machinery Protection Ordinance No.2. After four decades, basic legislation covering safety, health and welfare in factories was introduced in 1942. The Factories Division of the Department of Labour was set up in 1949 and the Factories Ordinance became operational in January 1950. However, the Factories Ordinance does not cover safety of field workers, such as farmers in the Agricultural Sector, in which 38.9% of the working population of Sri Lanka are employed at present. Only industrial hazards are covered by the Ordinance. The Factories Inspectorate comprise of a team of Engineers, Doctors and Scientists attached to the Department of Labour who are in charge of enforcement of the Factories Ordinance. In addition to the Factories Ordinance there is the Shop and Office Employees Act, the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance, the Environment Act and the Control of Pesticide Act that cover safety and health of workers in Sri Lanka to a certain extent. The Environment Act and the Control of Pesticide Act mainly cover safety in the use of chemicals, and, protection of users and the environment from harmful effects of chemicals.

The major causes of occupational accidents in Sri Lanka are due to mishandling of equipment, falling, being struck by flying objects in the work area, irregular use of personal safety devices by workers, and chemical exposures and poisoning, particularly in the agricultural sector.

The Factories Ordinance

The Factories Ordinance No. 45 of 1942, the subsequent Amendment Act No. 54 of 1961 and Law No. 12 of 1976 is the principal occupational safety and health legislation in the country. It makes provision for safety, health and welfare of workers in factories as defined under the Ordinance. It stipulates the minimum safety standards to be maintained by the employer. The Ordinance deals mainly with machine safety, welfare and safety precautions that should be taken by employers. The sections on health and welfare deal with cleanliness, work area and overcrowding, temperature, ventilation and lighting, sanitary conveniences, consumption of meals within restricted areas, lifting of weights, water for consumption, and first aid.

Rules relating to safety in the use of chemicals while at work are also found in this ordinance to some extent. The sections include; maintenance of adequate ventilation and rendering harmless all fumes, dusts and other impurities that may be generated due to the use of chemical substances which could be harmful to the health of the worker; powers to direct medical supervision of a preventive nature, where the substances used at work may pose a risk of causing injury to the health of the employee; fencing of vessels containing dangerous substances; precautions to be taken with respect of explosives and inflammable gases, vapour and other substances, provision of exhaust ventilation and isolation of plant and equipment containing ammonia, chlorine, carbon dioxide and other asphyxiates or irritant gas and vapour; and, the supply of safety equipment including breathing apparatus for workers working in environments where the above substances may be present. The Ordinance also includes sections dealing with the notification of industrial accidents, dangerous occurrences and occupational diseases, and, the requirement of authorized factory doctors to investigate and report on cases of injuries and deaths caused by exposure to dangerous substances.

The Shop and Office Employees' Act

In addition to the Factories Ordinance, the Shop and Office Employees' Act enacted in 1954 prescribes, inter alia, provision for the safe health of workers employed in shops and offices and, sets out requirements for adequate light, ventilation, sanitary conveniences and washing facilities at work places. This Act would cover all employees working in the offices maintained on the tea estates.

The Maternity Benefits Ordinance

The Maternity Benefits Ordinance, which is directly applicable to females working on estates, imposes certain restrictions with regard to employment of pregnant females on certain types of work that could be considered injurious to her, or to her child, and, with regard to termination of their services. The term 'injurious' is not defined clearly in the Act and should, therefore, be interpreted to include any work in the estate or factory of a heavy or arduous nature. The Ordinance also requires an employer of a female employee who is nursing a child under one year of age, to allow her two nursing intervals within the normal working day, at such time as she may require. The Medical Wants Ordinance that covers estate women workers, also prohibits dangerous or heavy work during pregnancy and after confinement on similar lines of the Maternity Benefits Ordinance.

The Workmen's Compensation Ordinance

The Workmen's Compensation Ordinance No.19 of 1934, the Workmen's Compensation regulations in 1935 and the amendments thereafter provide for the payment of compensation to workmen who are injured in the course of their employment. The Amendment Act that became operative from 1^st June'90, brought in drastic changes. The Act discusses in detail, the coverage of workmen, the amount of compensation payable, the distribution of compensation, procedures for recovery of compensation, surcharges in the event of failure to pay compensation, etc. It also lists the injuries deemed to result in permanent and partial disablement and the loss of earning capacity. It also contains a list of occupational diseases.

The Environmental Act

The Environmental Act No.47 of 1980 and the Amendment Act No.56 of 1988 has some provisions for safety in the use of chemicals. The National Environmental (Protection and Quality) Regulation No.1 of 1990 requires all industrial concerns to obtain an environment protection license. This regulation prohibits the discharge, deposit or emission of waste into the environment that would cause pollution. The Central Environmental Authority (CEA) obtains information from industrialists about the chemicals used in their manufacturing processes, transport, handling and storage facilities and safety precautions in the use of chemicals. The CEA has drafted a new environmental law and is awaiting approval. The draft Act defines toxic substances that may have immediate, and long-term cumulative harmful effects on the environment and human life. With regard to industry, the Minister would be empowered to make regulations for guidelines for the use and possession of toxic substances, registration, manufacture, labelling, packaging, advertising of such substances, the control of imports and exports of toxic substances, distribution, collection, storage, transportation and handling of chemical substances, monitoring the effects of toxic substances and their residues on human and occupational health and the environment and the control of emissions or deposits into the environment, and establishing standard laboratories for the testing of toxic substances.

Control of Pesticides Act

The Control of Pesticides Act No. 33 of 1980 provides for the licensing of pesticides; to regulate the import, packaging, labelling, storage, formulation, transport, sale and use; for the appointment of a licensing authority; for the establishment of a pesticide formulary committee. This is the only law in Sri Lanka that deals with classification and labelling of chemicals that are used in the manufacturing of pesticides. Pesticides are classified according to the lethal dose values (LD 50). The labelling regulation specifies the identity of the contents, languages and size of the lettering, danger symbols and colours, precautions during handling, first aid and antidotes etc.

As many deficiencies of this Act were identified, it was amended subsequently in 1994, brining broader control measures. The amendment law required more information to be submitted in the application for registration of a pesticide. The validity of the registration license was restricted to a maximum period of 3 years and it was made a requirement that the label be sent for approval at the time of registration of the pesticide. Another important feature was the classification of different pesticides and the restriction of their uses. It was also made a requirement that a certificate for the sale of pesticides should be obtained.

Deaths due to pesticide poisoning were the 5^th leading cause of death in Sri Lanka in 1994. Most of these cases of poisonings and deaths are due to intentional consumption in order to commit suicide. A small percentage of nearly 15% account for occupational causes and accidental intake. A large volume of weedicides and pesticides are used in the plantation sector where approximately 400,000 workers are employed. In most of these cases chemical agents are released into the environment thereby causing land and water pollution. As large numbers of population are clustered within small regions using common living amenities the chances of chemical poisoning are far greater. In the tea estates most of the workers do not use personal protective equipment when spraying pesticides or Weedicides. Many reported cases have shown that the effect is caused whereby the chemical agent has direct contact with the skin. The worker pays less attention to his or her health, as the effect of the chemical is long term.

There are many instances where large numbers of workers have been hospitalized with acute poisoning due to chemicals used in the workplace. Most often the causative agent was a solvent used in an air-conditioned area, gradually building up in concentration within the air of the work environment subsequently causing poisoning.

Use of fertilizer in Sri Lanka

There has been a considerable increase in the use of fertilizer in the Agricultural sector in Sri Lanka Fertilizer used during 1997, was approximately 524,558 metric tons. Among the plantation crops, tea recorded the highest increase in fertilizer usage. In 1995 only 120,000 metric tons of fertilizer was used in the tea sector. By the end of 1997, 160,000 metric tons of fertilizer was used in tea production. This was approximately 6,000 metric tons more than the amount used in 1996, and 40,000 metric tons more than what was used in 1995. The improved prices for tea and the favourable weather conditions during the year contributed to enhanced fertilizer application by 4%. The fertilizer subsidy scheme also contributed to the increased use of fertilizer. The fertilizer subsidy scheme in respect of four major varieties of fertilizer, namely, urea, sulphate of ammonia, muriate of potash and triple super phosphate continued in 1997. Urea is a major fertilizer used in the tea plantations. The graph indicates the amount of fertilizer utilized by the tea sector during the last decade. The usage of fertilizer has increased sharply after 1995.

Use of agro-chemicals in Sri Lanka

According to provisional estimates provided by the Registrar of Pesticides, the total quantity of agro-chemicals (insecticides, weedicides and fungicides) sales in 1997, declined by 6% compared to the same figures of 1996. The quantity of weedicides, which account for about 50% of total agro chemical sales, increased by 6% to 2,985 metric tons, while insecticide sales declined by 10% to 2,144 metric tons. The quantity of fungicide sales also declined by 31% to 579 metric tons. Increased sales of weedicides may be attributed to increased dependency by farmers on chemical weed control measures. The decline in sales of insecticides may be due to the promotion of Integrated Pest Management methods (where straight applications of insecticides are being discouraged). In November 1997, the Government announced the exemption of customs duty on agro-chemical imports.

Accidents reported from the estates

There were a total of 2,391 accidents reported from the 161 estates during the year 1996. This included 478 accidents that occurred in the factory premises and 1,913 accidents that occurred in the field. The graph indicates the number of accidents that occurred on the plantations during 1996 and the 1^st half of 1997.

A total of 1,118 accidents were reported during the first half of 1997, this included 222 accidents in the factory and 896 accidents in the field. It could be assumed that if the frequency of the number of accidents during the first 6 months continued for the second half of the year, a total of 2,236 accidents would occur by the end of 1997. This is approximately 7% less than the number of accidents that occurred in 1996. This projection indicates that the number of accidents in 1997 would be less than the number that occurred in 1996. This could be attributed to the fact that most employers in the plantation sector are now realizing the importance of safety and health of their employees and attempting to provide necessary training and precautionary measures.

Zero accidents

Twenty-two (22) of the one hundred and sixty-one (161) estates surveyed reported zero (0) accidents in the field or factory during the entire year of 1996 and for the 1^st half of 1997. This is 13.6% of the total number of estates covered by this survey. Fourteen (14) plantation companies managed at least one estate where no occupational accidents had taken place during the period covered by this survey. There were four estates of one Plantation Company where no accidents were reported during the period covered by the survey. There were five Plantation Companies with two estates each, where no accidents were reported during the period covered by the survey. There were eight Plantation Companies where no accidents were reported from one of their estates during the period covered. All these estates had safety training and awareness programmes implemented within their estates and employees had been given training in work safety.

Maintenance of accident records and accident investigation

Approximately 97% of the respondents maintained records and had information on all occupational accidents that occurred on the estate, while 76% of the respondents maintained records of accidents that occurred in the estate factory as well. 86% of the respondents stated that they maintained records of all occupational hazards and accidents and 80% confirmed that they maintained records of accidents that required giving the worker more than 3 days leave.

Of the total number responding, 74% stated that they maintained records of cases where employees had suffered from some occupational disease. 81% of the respondents indicated that there was an Estate Medical Assistant available on the estate. It was encouraging to note that 95% of the estates covered in the survey investigate work-related accidents that occurred on the field or in the factory. This indicates that there is a lot of importance placed in the investigation of work related accidents are done in order to minimize or eliminate future occurrences.

Nature of injuries

This section of the questionnaire was designed in order to obtain information on the nature of injury. All accidents that were reported required hospitalization or specialized treatment of a medical practitioner.

The following table and graph indicates the most common forms of occupational injuries that occurred on the tea plantations during 1996 and the 1^st half of 1997.

Type of Injury	Rank - 1996	Rank - 1997
Sprains/Fractures and Dislocations	1	1
Bruises and Cuts	2	2
Poisoning due to snake bites	3	3
Occupational dermatitis	4	4
Amputations	5	9 ?
Burns	5	5
Chemical Hazards/Exposures	5	8 ?
Internal Injuries	8	7 ?
Respiratory Injuries	8	6 ?
Injuries to the Nervous system	10	10
Noise related injuries	11	11

Fractures, sprains, and dislocations

The most number of injuries caused on the plantations were either in the form of fractures, sprains or dislocation of limbs. In 1996, there were 119 cases reported. These included 59 sprain injuries, 40 cases of fractures and 20 cases of joint dislocations. During the first half of 1997, there were 81 cases reported, which included 37 sprain injuries, 27 cases of fractures and 17 cases of dislocations. The sprain injuries are a result of persons falling and this is common in the fields due to the uneven and rough terrain. The estate worker who is mostly female is required to carry a heavy load of plucked tea on their backs, which causes loss of balance when negotiating rough ground. Fractures and dislocations are a result of many serious falls that may require hospitalization for a long period. Fractures are also caused due to accidents occurring in the factory where heavy machinery is used in the process of manufacturing tea.

Bruises and Cuts

The second most frequent type of injuries that occur on plantations is due to cuts and bruises sustained. In 1996, a total number of 99 cases with serious bruises and lacerations were reported. This figure had already reached a high of 86 incidents by June 1997. The most common reasons for the high rate of injuries of his nature could be attributed to the following facts:

The improper use of a sharp cutting devises such as knives, shears, and mammoties etc.
The non-use of protective foot wear.

In most of the above situations workers are required to seek medical treatment which would mean that they are required to be away from work for at least a day. It also means that in the absence of necessary first aid and medical attention, workers are forced to use traditional methods of treatment, which may lead to serious complications.

Poisoning due to snake bites

This is the third most common type injury caused to plantation workers. Sri Lanka being a tropical country is known to be the habitat for many venomous species of reptiles. In 1996, 72 cases, which required hospitalization or special medication due to snakebites, were reported. 60 cases reported by June 1997, required hospitalization. This form of poisoning is prevalent mainly in the fields, which have thick undergrowth, and due to the close proximity in which the tea plant is grown. In the plantations workers are required to commence work early in the morning and in most cases under poor visibility conditions. Also the fact that many of them do not use protective footwear has contributed to the alarmingly high rate of snakebite incidents in Sri Lanka. The non-availability of necessary first aid and medical care in most instances has increased the risk of fatality in snakebite victims.

Occupational dermatitis

Occupational Dermatitis is also a common form of injury caused to workers on the plantations. In 1996, there were 16 instances where occupational dermatitis cases were reported. This figure had already reached 16 by June 1997. This indicates that the number of cases may double by the end of the year. Unless proper care and prevention is taken, this may result in a serious occupational problem among plantation workers in the future. The reasons for skin disease to be common among the estate workers is the lack of awareness in the use of pesticides and weedicides, the lack of proper sanitation facilities and the ignorance of the need to maintain high standards of personal hygiene. In most cases pesticide and weedicide sprayers do no follow the required safety standards such as wearing protective gloves and masks. They are often clad in the same clothes during their working hours and thereafter at home until the end of the day and this causes serious skin exposure. Many of these workers do not obtain medical treatment for these skin irritations, which may spread rapidly among the other members of the community thereby causing epidemic situations.

Amputations

Amputations as a result of an injury were also common on the estates. There were 14 cases of amputations reported in 1996. This figure had reached 9 cases by June 1997. Amputations result in a neglected injury of a serious fracture or cut. It is unfortunate, as an amputation done on an estate worker would mean loss of earnings either temporarily or permanently. Once again, it is the seriousness of the injury and the time taken between the injury and treatment, which result in an amputation. It is only by increasing the level of medical care that one could reduce the number of incidences of this nature.

Burns

There were 14 cases of injuries resulting in burns in 1996. By June 1997, 16 such cases had been reported already. Burns are caused due negligent handling of chemicals and in some cases due to inadequate safety precautions when igniting fires.

Hospitalization due to chemical exposure

Occupational injuries due to contact with chemical substances were prevalent in the estates surveyed. In 1996, there were 14 cases of hospitalization reported due chemical poisoning. By June 1997, there were 12 cases reported. However, the numbers exposed to chemical hazards were greater than the actual number of hospitalization cases. Chemical exposure figures are given under the title 'chemical exposure', elsewhere in this report. Many hazardous chemicals are found in different quantities in the various pesticides, weedicides and fertilizers used on the plantation. These are known to be of high toxicity and acute or chronic exposure would often lead to serious health complications. In the plantations the most common form of exposure is through the skin or through oral ingestion contaminated food or water. In most of the estates surveyed, there are hardly any worthwhile OSH programmes on safety awareness and many workers do not know the importance of using personal protective equipment to safeguard against these chemical hazards.

Injuries to internal organs

In 1996, there were 12 cases reported where injuring occurred to internal organs due to occupational hazards. These include exposure to direct damage caused from a mechanical accident, fall etc. This figure had already reached 13 cases by June 1997 and is expected to increase further by the end of the year. All these cases required hospitalization or long term treatment.

Injuries to the respiratory system

This could be directly linked to hazardous exposures where workers suffer from temporary or permanent lung disorders. The nasal cavity and mouth are the major routes through which toxic substances enter the respiratory system of the body, and, is easily effected by gases, dust or fumes. There were 12 case reported in 1996, from the estates that responded to the survey. By June 1997 there were 14 cases reported already. It is evident that the numbers of victims of respiratory disorders are increasing on the plantations. It is difficult to conclude whether these cases could be directly linked to the type of work they perform, as the effects may be long term. However, in cases where workers are involved in the preparation of pesticides or weedicides, or those who do spraying in the fields may be affected even in the short term. Inadequate personal protection and ignorance of the effects of their incorrect actions cause many a worker to suffer from respiratory problems.

Injuries to the Nervous System

The nervous system is highly sensitive to the hazardous effects of organic solvents. Organophosphate insecticides such as malathion and parathion that are used interfere severely with the functions of the nervous system leading to weakness and paralysis and some times death. There were 7 cases of serious nervous system injuries that were reported in 1996 and there were 4 cases by June 1997.

Noise related injuries

There were 3 cases of injuries reported due to noise hazards in 1996. Long term exposure to high audio frequencies, which are above 90 dba, may cause serious hearing disorders. The types of machinery that are used in the factories of the tea estates are known for the high level of noise. There was one case of noise related injuries reported in June 1997. Special personal protective equipment such as earmuffs or earplugs is not worn in many places thereby increasing the risk of injury.

Physical location of the injury

Information was also collected on the physical location to which occupational injuries or diseases were caused. The objective of this exercise was to find out whether the work related injuries were particularly high in a specific part of the human body.

Eye injuries

There were 319 eye injuries during the year 1996. These injuries ranged from minor irritations to major accidents, which required emergency surgery. The number of accidents resulting in injuries to the eyes of the workers remained high at the end of the first half of 1997 as well. There were 193 cases reported during this period. Injuries to the eyes were in the form of burns, chemical exposures, and cuts and bruises of the face. Based on the mid year statistics available it could be assumed that the number of eye related injuries would increase by the end of 1997.

Ear injuries

In 1996 there were 120 cases where the ears of the workman were directly affected or injured due to the occupational injury. This figure had reached 62 by June 1997. The figures indicate that by the end of 1997, the number of ear injuries would remain the same as 1996. Though the number of occupational injuries remained low during the periods surveyed, the injuries could be due to other causes such as cuts and burns suffered to extensive areas of the face and head.

Facial injuries

Injuries caused to the face of the workman also remained high during 1996. There were 155 reported cases involving injuries to the face. The figure had reached 89 by the end of June 1997.

Head injuries

There was a high rate of incidence of head injuries caused to employees while at work. These ranged from minor external injuries such as bruises, cuts and burns to fractures and other serious injuries. Nonetheless in 90% of the cases the injuries were of a minor nature. In 1996, there were 232 head injuries reported from the estates. By June 1997, 131 such cases reported.

Neck injuries

There were 64 cases of neck injuries reported in 1996. This figure had reached 44 by June 1997. In most cases the injury is caused due to sprains and other muscular disorders suffered by the workmen who are involved in carrying heavy loads over their backs.

Back injuries

Most back injuries are caused due to the heavy load of the tea basket saddled to the back being carried by the workman. This causes the spine to suffer extensively and in most cases result in severe back disorders which may have immediate or long-term effects. By the end of 1996 there were 101 cases of back problems reported. This had reached 58 by June 1997, which meant that the condition was not improving.

Injuries to the torso

The classification under this category included injuries caused to the torso of the workman excluding the limbs, the back and internal organs. In 1996 there were 80 different cases of injuries reported and this had reached 46 cases by June 1997. Most of the injuries were caused due to falls suffered by the worker.

Injuries to arms and shoulders

Injuries caused in this category consisted of simple cuts, muscular disorders, fractures and amputations. More than 95% of the injuries were minor ones and did not require specialized treatment but were reported as minor accidents. In 1996, there were 262 accidents reported where the injury affected the arms or shoulder of the workman. By June 1997, 120 cases had been reported. The figures indicate the injuries caused to this part of the body are very common among plantation workers and are likely be high.

Injuries to hands and fingers

Like in the above category, work related injuries caused to the adjoining part of the arm i.e., the hands and fingers were very high among estate workers. In 1996 alone, there were 790 cases reported, most of which were caused due to cuts and bruises. In almost all the cases, the improper use of tools and sharp edged field tools were the main cause of the accident. By June 1997, injuries in this category already reached a high of 440 and, this is expected to increase by end of the year.

Feet and toe injuries

Occupational injuries caused to feet and toes of the worker were also high among plantation workers. The reasons attributed for the high rate of incidence is cuts and lacerations due to the improper manual use of tools and equipment, slips and falls, reptile and insect bites, and wounds caused due to the non use of footwear. By the end of 1996, there were 591 injuries reported in this category and this had already reached 305 injuries by June 1997. Of the injuries suffered to the feet of the worker, injuries caused to the toe and surrounding area remained the highest. There were 680 cases where the toe or fingers were affected the most. This was during the year 1996. By mid 1997, there were 347 injuries reported where the toes and fingers were affected. Injuries caused to hips and feet are most frequent among plantation workers who work in the fields during most of their working hours.

Dermal injuries

Injuries in this category ranged from occupational dermatitis to burn and bruises. The non-use or improper use of personal protective equipment and the exposure to hazardous material while at work were seen as the major causes of skin related disorders. In most cases the injuries resulted in accidental spillage, exposure during preparation and spraying of pesticides and weedicides, and improper handling and storage. The majority of work related skin disorders prevalent among these workers are eczema, irritation and inflammation of the skin, which can have a non-allergic or allergic reaction after exposure to chemical substances. Statistics reveal that in 1996 there were 143 cases reported with some form of skin disorder. By June 1997, this figure had reached 67. In most of the cases non-seeking of proper medical treatment, and the application of native treatment have aggravated the problem. Since plantation workers live in large communities and use common sanitary facilities, the chances of spreading skin related disorders among others in the community are very high.

Other injuries

There were only a few cases where injury was caused to other parts of body, which are not included here. There were 10 cases of occupational injuries reported in 1996. This figure had already reached 5 by June 1997.

The findings of the survey clearly indicates that among plantation workers, the most vulnerable areas of the human body which are exposed to occupational hazards and prone to occupational injuries are, the upper half of the human body which includes the head, the back, limbs and fingers in the hands and feet. This could be attributed to the fact that estate workers are required to work in the fields for a major part of the working day and are required to use sharp edged tools and equipment, carry heavy loads on their backs and walk bare foot on rugged slippery terrain. All these factors contribute greatly to increasing the chance of occupational accidents occurring. The nutritional level of the estate worker is also considered rather low. It has been found that the average calorie intake of an estate worker is lower than the necessary daily calorie intake of an average adult. This factor coupled with some extreme working conditions during the day certainly causes a drop in the level of physical tolerance of the worker, of whom the majority is females.

Common causes of occupational injuries

The next section of the survey sought information on the possible causes of occupational injuries that were common among plantation workers. The respondents listed 14 prominent causes of accidents.

Falls from the same level

Slips and falls from the same level is the commonest form of accidents that occurred among plantation workers. This included people tripping and falling in the fields as a result of unseen obstructions such as roots and stone, unprotected drains and trenches, and stepping on loose earth. The reason for this being those workers are always ignorant of the immediate danger that may be caused from any small obstruction. In 1996, there were 490 such cases reported. By June 1997, there were 245 cases of injuries reported as a result of tripping and falling. This was approximately 50% of the incidences reported in 1996.

Falls from heights

A common cause of work related injury was caused as a result of employees accidentally slipping and falling from a height. In 1996, there were 137 cases of falls from heights being reported where injuries were caused. By the end of the 1^st half of 1997, 67 cases were reported which is 49% of the total cases reported for 1996. The type of work performed by the estate worker, especially the plucking of tea on steep and rugged terrain, without any hand support in most instances have led to the high incidence of falls.

Mechanical injuries

Machine related and other mechanical injuries were considerably low among plantation workers when compared to the occupational injuries that were caused in the fields. This is mainly due to the fact that only a few workers are engaged full time in the production process in the factory.

One contributory factor to the rate of machine related injuries in the estate factories is, the fairly old, semi-automated machinery. In 1996, there were 216 accidents reported from the estate factories. These included accidents that occurred consequent to workers getting their arms and fingers entangled in heavy machines such as grinders. Some of this equipment which consists of many drives and pulleys are unguarded or situated within close proximity to each other. Most of the factory layout plans are outdated and do not conform to present day safety requirements. However, by end of June 1997, there were 114 mechanical accidents reported from the estates. This was 52.7% of the cases reported for 1996.

Striking against stationery or moving objects

This is another common form of injury that occurs in estate factories and store areas. In most situations workers are hit by moving objects such as trolleys, which are used to transport tea chests from the factory to the stores, or injured by striking against machinery or tea packing chests. In 1996, there were 29 accidents where workers injured themselves after colliding with stationery objects. By June 1997, this figure had reached 14.

Among the causes identified, the improper storage of tea chests in the stores, the location of machinery and equipment, the absence of safety signs and safety markings of passage ways in the factory are prominent. Compared to the number accidents caused due to collision with stationery objects accidents caused by workers striking against moving objects was high. 46 persons were injured after being hit by moving machine parts or trolleys in 1996. This figure had reached 23 cases by the end of June 1997. Accidents in this category are often caused due to the negligence of workers who are ignorant to the imminent dangers and hazards that may be created by their own actions.

Motor accidents

There were 78 motor accidents in which workers were injured in 1996. This figure had reduced in 1997 and there were only 12 accidents reported by June 1997. This was only 15% of the accidents that occurred in 1996. The high elevations on which the tea estates are located in Sri Lanka and the poor surface conditions of estate roads have been the major cause of vehicle accidents. Nonetheless, carelessness of drivers of heavy transport vehicles has contributed to the aggravation of the problem.

Muscular stress related injuries

Muscular stress is another common cause of occupational injury among plantation workers. The high volume of physical work performed by the estate labourer and the poor physical condition of the average estate worker has aggravated the situation further. There were 159 cases of work related muscular stress reported in 1996. The figure had reached 80 by June 1997, which is 50% of the incidences that were reported in 1996. Though the effects may be long term muscular stress related injuries a serious occupational hazard on the plantations.

Improper manual handling of loads

Among injuries caused to plantation workers due to incorrect manual handling of material the most common were sprains to the back, hands, legs and shoulders. Loading and unloading of heavy material such as fertilizer could be the cause of spine injuries in many cases. Many workers are unaware of the seriousness of their incorrect lifting actions until permanent damage is done to the spine. At the end of 1996, 46 cases of injuries in this category were reported. The number had reached 28 by June 1997, which is nearly 61% of the injuries reported for 1996 in this category.

Improper use of work tools

Accidents due to the incorrect use or misuse of hand tools and power tools were very high among plantation workers. In 1996 there were 230 instances of improper use of work tools reported to the management. This figure had reached 138 by the end of June 1997, which was already 60% of the instances reported in 1996. Worker ignorance due to the lack of training in the safe use of these work tools was seen as the main cause for the high rate of accident occurrences. Accidents often resulted in cut abrasions to the worker, which required specialized treatment from a hospital.

Injuries resulting in repetitive movement of limbs and torso

These injuries are linked to muscular stress related injuries. Impairment is caused to joints and muscles as a result of continuous movement of the limbs and body. It is the direct effect of the extensive physical work to which the plantation worker is exposed each day. During 1996, there were 29 cases reported where victims were diagnosed with occupational injuries that may have been caused due irregular body movements. By June 1997 the condition had worsened and there were 24 cases reported.

Electrocution

Physical injuries caused due to electrocution were high among the estate workers. Injuries ranged from minor shocks to serious burns. No deaths were reported during the period covered in the survey. These accidents occur mainly in the estate factory and are caused due to the carelessness of workers in most cases. Electrical wiring systems and power lines in some factories may be obsolete and this may cause an accidental electrocution of a worker. In 1996 there were 105 instances of workers being electrocuted reported from the estates surveyed. This figure reached 41 by June 1997.

Fires and Explosions

Occupational injuries caused from fires and explosions were not high among the plantation workers. In 1996, only 15 cases of injuries due to fires were recorded. However accidents due to fires and explosions had increased by June 1997, and there were already 24 cases reported.

Exposure to chemical hazards

The number of exposures to chemicals was moderately high among the estates surveyed. In 1996, there were 85 cases reported. By June 1997, 38 incidences of chemical exposures were notified to the estate managements. Most of these exposures were due agro-chemicals. The most common routes of absorption were through the skin (dermal absorption) and through the digestive tract (ingestion). Some of these exposure cases required hospitalization.

Environmental pollution

It is encouraging to note that the hazards caused to workers due to the pollution of environment are low in Sri Lanka. There were only 34 cases reported in 1996, where the polluted environment had affected workers or their dependants' health conditions. In the majority of these instances the pollution was caused due to the contamination of waterways as a result of pesticide spraying. By June 1997, there were 22 cases of hazards of environmental pollution reported.

Snake bites and insect bites

This was a common occupational hazard among plantation workers who were engaged in fieldwork most of the day. In 1996 there were 95 instances reported where insect or snakebites during work had led to injury. About 78% of these cases had to seek specialized treatment. By June 1997 there were 60 instances reported. Accidents caused due to reptile and insect bites are in the rise and it would be necessary to address this hazard immediately.

There were also 244 instances where accidents were caused due to other means that were not specified as a cause in the study. Sometimes accidents occur as a result of workers clashing with each other. Occupational diseases come under this category. By June 1997, there were 92 such instances reported.

Workdays lost due to occupational injuries

A total of 14,789 workdays were lost due to occupational injuries caused to workers during the year 1996. Of this figure 76% percent of the workdays lost were due to the injuries caused while doing fieldwork. Approximately 18% of the work days lost was due to accidents caused in the factory and subsequent absence. About 6% of the workdays were lost in 1996, due to absence from work as a result of an occupational injury caused in the estate office, stores or some other areas of the estate. There were a total of 2,391 accidents reported from the 161 estates during the year 1996, which meant that on an average every occupational injury resulted in approximately six (6) workdays being lost to the estate.

By the end of June 1997, 8,195 workdays were lost due to occupational injuries. Of this figure 77% was due to absence of workers who sustained injuries in the fields. 20% of the workdays lost for the first half of the year was due to accidents caused in the estate factory, and approximately 3% of the workdays lost were due to injuries caused from accidents occurring in other areas of the estate. A total of 1,118 accidents were reported during the first half of 1997, which meant that on an average every occupational injury resulted in approximately seven (7) workdays being lost to the estate. This indicates that the average loss of working time per accident has increased from 6 to 7 days within the first six months of 1997.

Severity of disability and amount of compensation paid to victims

Temporary disability

There were 890 cases of occupational injuries that resulted in temporary disability in 1996. This meant that the workman was required to seek medical assistance for the injury. This figure had already reached 401 cases by the end of June 1997, which amounted to 45% of the total number of cases reported for 1996. A sum of Rs.576,197/75 was paid out as some compensation to these victims in 1996. On an average each victim who suffered from temporary disability received a sum of Rs.647.00. In 90% of the cases this amount was paid as medical expenses and some payment for loss of earnings.

The Workmen's Compensation Ordinance provides for payment of compensation by the employer to a workman who sustains personal injury during work. Where the occupational injury is of a temporary nature the employer is required to pay wages to the employee during the first three days of absence from work due to the injury. The Workmen's Compensation Ordinance provides for 1/2 month's pay for absence beyond three days, computed according to the monthly wages of the employee.

Partial disability

There were 67 reported cases in 1996, where the occupational injury had resulted in partial disability of the workman. This figure had reached 31 by June 1997. In 1996, a sum of Rs.180,036/92 was paid out to these victims. An average of Rs.2,687/- was paid to each victim for medical treatment. A sum of Rs.100,502/- was paid among 31 victims, at an average of Rs. 3,242/-, by June 1997.

Compensation payment for partial disability is prescribed in the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance and the amount payable varies according to the monthly salary of the employee, nature of injury and the cause, the organ to which the injury was sustained and the percentage of loss of earning capacity lost.

Permanent disability

There were 8 reported cases where the injury caused permanent disability to the worker, which meant that there was a total loss of earnings thereafter. In this situation too, the Ordinance provides for compensation computed as specified in the preceding paragraph. A sum of Rs.129,028/- was paid among 8 victims. On an average each person received a sum of Rs.16,128/- apart from the compensation receivable under the compensation Ordinance. By June 1997, there were 11 cases of permanent disability reported.

Death of victim

From the 161 estates surveyed, there were 4 cases where the injuries had been fatal. A sum of Rs.550,538/- was paid, on an average of Rs.137,634/50, to the dependants. By June 1997, there were 2 deaths reported and compensation amounting to Rs.249,493/- was paid to dependants of these victims at the rate of Rs.124,746/50. The maximum compensation payable under the Workmen's Compensation Ordinance for injury resulting in permanent disability or death of a worker is fixed at Rs.250,000/-.

Safety committees

Safety committees are considered as the outset to having a successful safety and health programme in the workplace. The majority of the estates covered by the survey did not have a Safety Committee functioning on the estate. Of the 161 responses received only 42 (25.9%) indicated that they had a safety committee. 106 (65.4%) of the respondents stated that they did not have such safety committees functioning. Thirteen (13) of the respondents did not answer this question, therefore, it could be assumed that they do not have any safety committees set up within their estates. This is an important aspect of safety and health which has been overlooked by Management in the plantations as well as in the Commercial and Industrial Sector. A recent survey among 90 EFC member companies in the commercial and industrial sector revealed that only 22.5% had a safety committee set-up and functioning.

First aid or medical facilities

Approximately 136 (84%) of the respondents indicated that they have adequate first aid facilities available on the estates in the event of an emergency. Only 26 (16%) stated that they do not have first aid facilities within the estate. In most cases the estate Hospital or Dispensary is located within a short distance from the factory. Accident victims are referred directly to these places in the event of an emergency. 138 (85.2%) stated that there was a Dispensary or Hospital within a one kilometer radius from the estate.

Training workers on safety

It is rather discouraging to note that only few estate management companies provide safety training for plantation workers. Only 44 (27%) of the respondents provide continuous safety training on a structured basis, and, these were the estates on which very few accidents took place or no work related accidents took place during the period covered by this study.

The training is predominantly in the area of chemical safety, where workers are trained in the safe use of pesticides, fungicides and fertilizer is done by many estates. Nearly 53% of the respondents stated that chemical safety training is provided to workers.

23% of the estates surveyed had conducted several programmes on OSH during the period covered by this study. Among the training programmes conducted, the focus was mostly on the safety in the use of tools and equipment, proper use of personal protective equipment, safe formulation and use of pesticides and weedicides and good house keeping practices.

The following safety programmes are also conducted for plantation workers. Special safety training given to employees by the estate medical staff; training conducted by the Plantation Housing And Social Welfare Trust; safety, health and hygiene training conducted by health volunteers and Rural Farming Department personnel; and, personal protection awareness and chemical safety training programmes conducted by suppliers of fertilizers and pesticides. Some Non Governmental Organizations also conduct safety-training programmes in the regions.

Accident insurance schemes

Due to the high rate of accidents that prevail on the plantations, most employers had secured accident insurance policies for their employees. Of the 161 responses, 131 (80.9%) stated that they do have such schemes in order to provide compensation in the event of any occupational hazards or accidents occurring.

Application of weedicides

All the estates included in this study used these chemicals in high, low and moderate quantities. The quantity used depends on the cultivated land extent and the soil quality. Weedicides are commonly used on the tea plantations to destroy weeds and other unwanted plants that threaten the growth of the tea plant. Among the many weedicides and fungicides used the most widely used ones are indicated in the above chart. However, chemical agents such as Gramoxone, Destroy Carbofuran, Weedol, Round up are the most commonly used ones in Sri Lanka. Fairly large quantities are used daily in the fields as they are known to destroy a variety of weeds and fungi that affect the tea plant. Other popular brands of weedicides in Sri Lanka are Glyphosate, Monocrotophos, MCPA, 2-4 DP and Helmoxy. These weedicides are found in powder and liquid form, and needs to be diluted to the necessary levels before they could be used. Many workers are unaware of the risks to health at the point of preparation. Personal protective equipment is not used properly, therefore, leading to contamination either by inhalation of chemical dusts or dermal absorption of liquid formulas. Fungicides such as Copper, Diuron, Sodium bi-suphate, Oxichloride, Parquet, and Calixin are also used in low to moderate quantities in the plantations.

Chemicals such as Rupepa, Sodium Sulphite, Beloran, Nexo Bleach, Caustic Soda, Sodium Bisulphate, Oxalic Acid, Formic Acid, Zinc Oxide, Sulphuric Acid, Ammonia Solution and Tamol are used widely in the estate factories. The volume used ranged from low to medium levels, depending on the size of the factory and the volume of production.

Application of pesticides

The safe use of pesticides is determined by the care and attention given to precautionary measurers before, during and after application. In the plantations the scale of operation, the area of application and the form in which the pesticide is applied is important. These pesticides are manufactured locally and are available in the local market under different trade names.

In Sri Lanka, the control of Pesticides Act No.33 of 1980, provides for the licensing of pesticides, the regulation of import, packing, labelling, storage, formulation, transport, sale and use thereof. This is the only law that deals with classification

and labelling of chemicals and applies only to pesticides. The labelling regulation specifies the contents, languages and the size of the lettering, the danger symbols and colour codes, precautions to be taken in handling, first aid and antidote etc. However, most of the plantation workers are illiterate, therefore, cannot comprehend some of these precautions. It is vital that these employees are properly trained in the handling of chemicals. The most commonly used pesticides in the tea plantations are Bitertanol (Baycor), Copper Oxychloride (Helmoxy) Cobex, Bordox, Sulphate of Ammonia, Zinc, Fernoxone, Dolomite, Formic Acid, Methyl Bromide etc. The quantities used vary from low to moderate levels in 90% of the instances. In some large estates higher volumes are used in order to combat harmful fungi, pests and weeds.

Fertilizers used in the tea sector

A number of different fertilizers are widely used in the tea plantations in order to produce the maximum quantity of high quality teas. The volume of tea produced depends largely on the plant nutrients added to the soil. Therefore, the use of fertilizer in the tea sector has increased sharply over the years. The principal chemicals used for this purpose are Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium. The other elements needed in smaller quantities that are also vital to the growth of the tea plant include Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Zinc and Iron. Nitrogen is one of the micronutrients, and is needed in relatively large quantities.

The most widely used fertilizers are titled as the "U and T series". The "U series" includes manure mixtures titled U/230, U/280, U/300, U/625, U/709, U/625 etc.. The "T series" includes manure mixtures titled T/65, T/250, T/875, T/1130 etc.. These are a series of manure mixtures that include Nitrogen, Phosphorous Pentaoxide, Potassium Oxide, and Magnesium Oxide. Other types of fertilizer used in tea growing are MCPA 60%, Zinc Sulphate, Dolomite, Epsom Salt, Urea, Sulphate of Ammonia, Muriate of Potash and Kieserite.

All types of fertilizers mentioned above are used in moderate to high quantities depending on the extent of the cultivated land. Most of these fertilizers are very soluble in water, therefore, could dissolve in rainwater and get flushed down from the slopes of the plantation into waterways. Nitrates may also enter ground water and pollute it. Therefore it is important that proper training in the use of fertilizer is given to employees who handle these material.

Storage facilities

Planning and proper maintenance of storage areas is important in the plantations as large quantities of fertilizer and pesticides are stored within the estate. The hazards related to the fertilizers and pesticides can be grouped into storage, transport and application. Proper housekeeping is essential when working with dangerous substances to avoid any unwanted chemical reactions. Proper transport, loading and unloading procedures are also vital for safety. The survey revealed that 93% of estates do have proper storage facilities for the safe storage and distribution of fertilizer, pesticides and weedicides. It is encouraging to note that the estate managements have taken adequate steps to provide proper storage facilities, as the lack of proper storage may cause spillage and air exposure, which could be harmful to the workers, and to the environment.

Employees engaged in the application of pesticides and weedicides

Approximately of 4,784 employees are directly engaged in tasks such as preparation of fertilizer, pesticides, fungicides and spraying them in the fields. This is nearly 4.8% of the total workforce covered by this survey.

58%f the respondents stated that their employees who were engaged in jobs such as fertilizer mixing and pesticide spraying were rotated on the job from time to time. This is important as it is not advisable to engage an employee in tasks such as pesticide spraying and fertilizer preparation for long periods as the amount of exposure time to the chemical increases. Most of the Superintendents have realized this fact, however, in 42% of the cases the employees are engaged in these jobs on a fixed basis.

68% of the respondents stated that employees who were engaged in the above tasks were trained in the safe use of chemicals. However, the rate of incidence of chemical exposures and related accidents indicate that negligence, and lack of proper awareness among estate workers are the main causes. 32% of the respondents stated that no special safety training has been given to these workers. In some cases the suppliers themselves give employees some information on safety in the use of pesticides.

Use of personal protective equipment (PPE)

Most agrochemicals used on the tea plantations and the machinery used in tea production and working conditions present a risk to the plantation worker. Engineering control measures could control some of these risks. However, the demographic conditions and the nature of work on the tea plantations make engineering control measures difficult. PPE therefore, remains a necessary part of working with agrochemicals. The protection required would depend on the degree of hazard, the harmful effects of the agrochemical and the way in which it is prepared and used. In the tea plantations proper eye and face protection, respiratory protection, protective gloves and working clothes are important when pesticides and fungicides are formulated or sprayed. In the estate factory most of the machinery do not cater to present levels of safety standards. Therefore, personal protection and caution is vital for jobs such as machine operators. Only 60% of the respondents stated that PPE is provided to employees who are engaged in these tasks. Many employees do not use this equipment as they are not comfortable to use. This shows that proper guidelines have not been observed when selecting the most suitable PPE for the job.

Safety training for estate superintendents and staff

Approximately 69% of the respondents stated that no safety and health training or awareness was given to the Estate Superintendents and other Staff. Only 31% of the Superintendents indicated that the Managing Companies provided them with safety training. The type of training received were basic awareness building programmes. These were as follows :

Awareness programmes and safety demonstrations
Information and awareness given by suppliers of personal protective equipment.
Training in the preparation and use of fertilizer and pesticides
Special OSH training programmes organized by the Plantation Housing and Welfare Trust
Training programmes on first aid
OSH training organized by Non Governmental Organizations and Health volunteers
Special safety training programmes conducted by the National Institute of Plantation Management.

Current OSH issues, and future recommendations for improvement in the plantations

The tea sector contributes greatly to the national economy. Unlike in other economic sectors, relatively difficult working conditions, illiterate and sometimes ignorant workers and hazardous work environments make occupational accidents and illnesses very common among the plantation worker. Workers have limited access to specialized advisory services and often young persons are employed on the estates making them more vulnerable to occupational hazards. The majority of estates do not have safety committees or a full time safety officer. In many cases personal protective equipment are not worn by workers or not in proper working order. Fire drills are not conducted in factories and workers are not trained in fire fighting. Many employees are paid allowances for accepting to do tasks, which involve physical risks. These negative factors, in many instances, have been barriers to implement sound safety and health schemes.

It is also important to consider the differences among working people in Sri Lanka, and the effects the type of work they do has on their health. The main concern is that some workers in particular types of industry are more vulnerable than others. In the plantations, children help their parents on the estates to raise income levels of the family. Women form the major proportion of Sri Lanka's plantation labour force, and due regard should be paid to their dual role, family needs, and difference in educational levels, physique and mental capacities. The disabled and the older workers do not have the same mental and physical capacity for work as their younger and healthier counterparts. Their needs and capacities have to be taken into consideration when providing work. With the change in the demographic pattern in Sri Lanka a larger proportion of aged workers are expected by the next decade, and this will have to be considered in formulating safety and health programmes in Sri Lanka.

Therefore, it is necessary to integrate a clear occupational safety and health policy in national development plans. The national policy should include better structures for tripartite co-operation among Government, Employers and Workers including a national tripartite consultative mechanism. There is also the need to review existing legislation relating to health and safety of workers. Safety and Health legislation in Sri Lanka was first enacted in 1942, and does not cover all types of workers in all economic activities as specified by the International Convention on Occupational Safety and Health of the ILO.

The need for employers' organizations and trade unions to be more committed and organized to handle OSH issues should be emphasized. The national policy and program on OSH should include workplace level organization of health and safety activities involving both employers and workers. Although the employer is legally responsible for the safety and health in the workplace, the joint participation of employers and workers is necessary to deal with practical problems relating to occupational hazards within the workplace in a flexible manner. Training of new workers should include general principles of safety and health at work, as well as specific risks involved with every job. It would be useful to establish training for new workers and re-training existing employees. The training of trainers to train estate workers is of vital importance. Trainers should be taught about participatory methods of training. Though the Department of Labour, supported by the International Labour Organization (ILO) conducts many training programmes for factory inspectors and safety and health personnel, it is useful to involve employees at all job levels, in health and safety training, and, in handling disasters and disaster preparedness which is also becoming an important factor today.

Ready to use training material should be made available to every one who is concerned about human safety. Since occupational safety is a subject that requires specialized training, it would be useful to have properly structured training courses provided at national level. Since promotional activities play a vital role in encouraging occupational safety, objectives should be directed at securing national level commitment.

Conclusion

There are indications that the Government is beginning to give high priority to workers' safety and health in order to reduce human suffering and enhance quality of work, work life and productivity. It is encouraging to note the State has declared an OSH week in early September of each year. The Government is also attempting to address the problem of malnutrition and under nourishment among certain categories of workers. All vital factors in taking Sri Lanka towards a safer, healthier and productive nation by the 21^st Century.

Updated by PAP/SUT/TRS. Approved by BKL. Last update: 17 January 2001.