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Migrant Women Domestic
Workers in Bahrain*
Dr. Sabika al-Najjar
2001
CONTENTS
Introduction
I Female Domestic Helpers in the Gulf Region
I.1
Historical Overview of Domestic Women Workers in the Gulf Region
I.2
Statistics on Domestic Helpers in Bahrain
I.3
Domestic Helpers and the Bahraini Law
II Process of Assignment
II.1 Recruitment process
II.2 Recruitment agents in Bahrain
II.3 Recruitment fees
II.4 Working contract and salary
III Profile of Domestic Helpers in Bahrain
III.1 Homeland - Bahrain
III.2 Age
III.3 Husband and Children
III.4 Educational Level
III.5 Religion
IV Host Family
IV.1 Expectations and Experiences
IV.2 Inter-Cultural Mis-communication
IV.3 Necessities and Requirements
IV.4 Friends and Visits
IV.5 Practicing Religion
IV.6 Watching Television and Using the Telephone
IV.7 Maltreatment
IV.8 Aspiration and Future Plans
V Embassies
V.1 Bangladesh Embassy
V.2 The Employment Bureau at the Embassy of the Philippines
V.3 Embassy of India
VI Case Studies
VI.1 Case Studies: Migrant Women Workers
VI.2 Cases Studies: Sponsors
Conclusions and Recommendations
Bibliography
Introduction
Bahrain is classified among the rich developing countries. Its gross national
product (GNP) in 1998 was estimated at Bahraini Dinars 2,087 and the per
capita income for the same year was BD.2, 861.1
Bahrain became an independent state in 1970 and, since then, the country
has witnessed dramatic changes in its socio-economic structure. The oil
boom of the early seventies enabled the Government to allow the import
of foreign workers, to meet the high demand for labour to build the infrastructure
in the country. Consequently expatriate workers, from South and Southeast
Asia were encouraged to come to the country, resulting in a rapid increase
in non-Bahraini workers.
Official statistics show that in 1970 foreign workers in Bahrain formed
37.07% of the total labour force. Although the Government adopted a policy
of gradual nationalization of the labour force, foreign workers continue
to increase. In 2000, the number of foreign workers was estimated to be
203,259 workers, or 63.64% of the total labour force, against 116,132
Bahraini workers.
Researchers in developing countries often face difficulties in acquiring
reliable and detailed information on the labour force. Bahrain is no exception.
Official statistics available concentrate on private sector workers and
only those who are covered by the Social Security Scheme (SSS). Nevertheless,
these figures reflect labour force trends in Bahrain.
Foreign workers covered by the SSS were estimated at 98,991 in 1999 (92,164
males and 6,827 females). Bahraini workers totalled 50,402, of whom 38,937
were males and 11,465 females. These numbers do not include expatriate
casual labour, which is estimated at an additional 50,000, self-employed
people, domestic workers and those who work in micro businesses.2
The building and construction sector employs a large number of foreign
workers. A total of 32,304 foreign workers and 8,440 Bahrainis and employed
by the building and construction sector. This is a clear demonstration
that this sector does not appeal to Bahrainis. It is expected that this
sector will absorb more foreign workers in the future, as the Government
is launching some major projects, such as the building of new schools,
hospitals, housing and a bridge linking Bahrain with Qatar. Women are
not encouraged to take up jobs in this sector, as the work involved is
hard and strenuous.
The industrial sector employed 13,918 Bahrainis and 22,395 foreigners
in 1999. Female workers are mainly employed in the ready-made garment
factories. Although no statistics are available, the Bahraini female workforce
in the industrial sector is generally low due to the following reasons:
- Shift work
- Strenuous work and poor wages (about Bahraini Dinar (BD)
80 recently raised to BD 120 to encourage Bahraini job seekers into
enter this sector).
- Unavailability of transport to and from the working place.
The wholesale, retail trade, restaurants and hotels sector employed 20,786
foreign workers, compared with 7,711 Bahraini workers, in 1999. An additional
12,287 foreign workers were employed in the community, social and personal
services, against 7,319 Bahrainis. The Government of Bahrain is planning
to regulate the import of foreign workers and placing unemployed Bahraini
youth (about 20,000 persons) in jobs mainly in the industrial, hotel and
catering sector and information and technology.
The Survey
To be able to identify practices and patterns that are 'key causes'
for migrant workers' vulnerability and to provide alternative approaches,
base line data are compiled. The objective is to bring policy makers and
other concerned actors into a dialogue to develop a comprehensive ILO
action plan which specifically addresses protective measures for female
domestic migrant workers. The sample group was composed of:
- 16 Bahraini housewives from different parts of Bahrain and
had employed domestic helpers for at least two years. Another prerequisite
was their experience with domestic helpers of different nationalities;
- 34 female domestic helpers chosen randomly from different
areas in Bahrain carrying the following nationalities: 11 domestic helpers
from the Philippines, 12 from Sri Lanka, five Indian women, three from
Ethiopia, two women migrants from Indonesia and one from Bangladesh.
- Officials at the Embassies of Bangladesh, the Philippines
and India.
Open-ended interviews were conducted with the women employers and questionnaires
developed for the women domestic workers. The reasoning behind this was
the difficulties encountered to conduct face-to-face interviews. Household
helpers suspected that the information provided in the interviews would
be handed to the police or Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs and that
their answers would be used against them. Also the location of the interviews
(in the working place) turned out to be problematic since the workers
were not able to answer freely as their employers were present during
the interview. As a result, all the interviews took place in public places,
such as parks, supermarkets or at fast food restaurants where the domestic
helpers accompanied the children.
The employers' households had an average of four children and an average
income ranging from BD300 to BD400. 36% of the sample group were working
women contributing to the family income. Their level of education ranged
from intermediate school to graduate.
I Female Domestic Helpers in the Gulf Region
I.1 Historical Overview of Domestic Workers in the Gulf Region
Employing female domestic helpers is not a new phenomenon in Bahrain. Traditionally,
before the discovery of oil in 1932, women from poor families used to
work for wealthy families. Although they would be provided food, accommodation
and clothes, they did not receive regular salaries. Prior to the oil boom
in the seventies, certain rich families hired domestic helpers from Seychelles
and India as a means to gain social prestige and have better access to
a Western life style. Domestic helpers in those days were relatively well
educated and spoke English fluently. They enjoyed a certain degree of
respect and freedom, working mainly as governesses, in charge of children.
They also performed certain tasks, which were considered "modern", such
as ironing, while other household chores, such as cooking, gardening or
cleaning were taken care of by other servants drawn from Bahrain, Oman
and Al-Hassa district of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia.
In the past, the raising of children was a shared responsibility between
the mother, the grandmother and any other adult living in the large house
of the extended family. Household work was taken care of by all the daughters-in-law
who lived in the same house. Nowadays, the extended family has been replaced
by the nuclear family. Moreover, social obligations of women have increased.
Despite all these social changes, housework has continued to be the woman's
responsibility. Women, therefore, looked for assistance and the importance
of hiring domestic helpers gradually increased to the extent that they
carry out almost all household tasks while women have free time to devote
to social activities.
The emergence of Asian female domestic helpers is considered to be a result
of the social changes that the country witnessed in the aftermath of the
oil boom. And this phenomenon is expected to increase in the coming years.
In fact, almost every household in Bahrain employs one or more domestic
helpers. Moreover, the influx of foreign workers including domestic helpers
has become a form of trade in human beings or New Slavery as some sociologists
describe it.3
The Governments in both labour exporting and importing countries are endeavouring
to study this phenomenon and regulate it. However, each party is tackling
the matter from different angles, to obtain different objectives. While
exporting countries promote labour migration, they also try to protect
their nationals against abuse. Importing countries seek to contain any
potential cultural and social effects that domestic helpers might have
on the society, in general, and its main institution, the family, in particular.4
In 1987 and 1988 some Asian Governments decided to ban placement of female
domestic workers to protect their interests. The sending countries adopted
national programs to prepare the women before leaving, adopted bilateral
agreements and the Philippines Government established an overseas employment
administration. However, since the financial advantages of working abroad
could not be compensated nationally, the number of domestic helpers has
grown several folds. In 1990, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs
issued 2,065 work permits to domestic helpers, while in the year 2000
the work permits issued to domestic helpers were 23,495 most of which
were for females.
Various inter-connected factors have contributed to the increasing number
of household workers in the Gulf region, in general, and in Bahrain, in
particular. These factors could be summarized as follows:
1 - Social changes in the family
Bahrain and the Gulf region have witnessed various social changes
that have influenced the family structure. High revenues from oil exports
resulted in a higher living standards. Education and health services improved,
construction boomed in the suburbs, and new cities emerged in the middle
of the desert.
2 - Entry of women into the labour market
The higher level of education encouraged Bahraini women to enter the
labour market. However, working women are still responsible for all household
work. Since this situation considerably increased their workload families
started seeking for household assistance. The changes in the way of living
accelerated this process. Most young couples now live far from their families
and there are only few kindergartens and day-care centres available to
look after the children. As a result, families were obliged to hire somebody
to take care of their children and help them with the household chores.
Since Bahrainis are not willing to perform this type of work, because
of the so called "culture of shame", the only alternative is to employ
foreigners.
3 - Social prestige
As mentioned before, the presence of domestic workers in the homes
of wealthy families, is not new to Bahrain. However, with the oil boom
and the increase of wealth, it became possible for basically anybody to
hire a domestic helper. Employing domestic workers became a status symbol,
a means to acquire a higher social status and prestige.5
4 - Economic situation in labour exporting countries
The increase in wealth in the Gulf countries coincided with the rise
of poverty in the labour exporting countries. Mainly due to these economic
conditions, the governments in labour exporting countries were unable
to take viable measures to contain poverty and unemployment that threatened
their national security. They, therefore, encouraged their nationals to
search for jobs abroad.
Remittances sent by the overseas workers were a vital source of national
income in the labour exporting countries. The Philippine Overseas Employment
Administration, for example, estimated the remittances of overseas Filipinos
to be $680.4 million in 19866,
while the Central Bank of Ceylon calculates a total of Rupees 6.9 billion
in private transfers to Sri Lanka in 1983.7
5 - Cost effectiveness
Domestic workers' wages are low by all standards and so are the expenses
for hiring a live-in household worker. Taking into consideration the standard
of living in Bahrain, one could say that employing a domestic worker is
within reach of the majority of the indigenous population.
The high demand for expatriate workers in the Gulf region led to the creation
of employment to facilitate the recruitment process. These recruitment
agents, in both labour exporting countries and labour importing countries,
facilitate the movement and the placement of domestic workers.8
I.2 Statistics on Domestic Helpers in Bahrain
9
According to the 1981 population census, there were 10.4 female house workers for
each 100 households. In 1991 this number increased to 15.05. They constituted
9.59% of the total non-Bahraini labour force and 59.07% of the total female
non-Bahraini labour force. Since then, the number of domestic helpers
continued increasing.
The statistics on domestic helpers obtained from different official sources
are contradictory. The Central Statistics Organization estimated the number
of domestic workers to be 23,163 as on March 200110.
The General Directorate of the Immigration and Passports estimated it
at 11,078 women house worker in 200011.
This number does not correspond with the figure given by the embassy of
the Philippines which estimated Filipino domestic helpers at 10,800 in
2000 12,
nor does it correspond with the number of work permits issued for house
workers which totalled 25,601 permits in 2000 (17,487 new permits and
8,114 renewals)13.
This explains the fact that sponsors do not respect the contract they
sign with the workers. A woman may come to Bahrain to work as a clerk
or sales person and, instead, find herself working as a domestic helper.
For example, a businessman who has exceeded his quota of foreign workers
would bring in additional foreign workers under the sponsorship of his
relatives, who are able to obtain a visa and work permit for a domestic
helper. Some foreigners also do the same: they obtain domestic helper
work permits for their relatives and then find them jobs elsewhere.
I.3 Domestic Helpers and the Bahraini Law
Despite the increasing importance and numbers of domestic workers, Article 2 of
the Bahrain Labour Law for the Private Sector, 1976, exempted "domestic
servants and persons as such" from the purview of the law. This exemption
is due to the private nature of housework. "House workers are treated
as a part of the family" said a Ministry of Labour spokesman. "Disputes
should be settled internally whenever possible. Or else the privacy of
households is desecrated"14.
In case of a dispute, a house worker can appeal to the police or to the
court. The Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs is also dealing with
workers' complaints, but according to an official its mandate is limited.
Complaints are resolved amicably and, if not, they are referred to the
court. Non-payment of wages and sponsors' refusal to provide a return
air tickets after two years of work are the main complaints referred to
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. It may be noted that domestic workers
are largely unaware of the actions they can take, to secure their rights.
They do not even know the address or the telephone number of the Ministry
of Labour and Social Affairs.
Extreme cases of maltreatment, such as beating, sexual harassment or rape,
are referred to the police and/or the court. Both the employers and house
workers can appeal to the police on matters concerning their mutual relations.
The majority of cases registered with the police were of runaway house
worker (38.67% and 33.95% in 1990 and 1991 respectively). Female house
workers run away for different reasons. No data is available on this regard
but observations revealed the following facts and causes:
- Non-payment of salary;
- Sexual harassment, physical and psychological abuse;
- Excessive work and exhaustion;
- Isolation, no permission to leave the house, receive visitors
or have a partner;
- Withholding of passport by sponsor (this is especially the
case after the end of the two years contract).
- Jealousy on the part of the Madame;
- Inadequate food or medical treatment when required;
- Misinformation about the nature of work as they come for
certain other jobs and found themselves working as domestic helpers.
Most runaway cases take place after the lapse of the initial three months
period, when the worker has completed the debt payment and the recruiting
agent is no longer responsible for her. Running away from the employer's
house is illegal. A police search is launched and the runaway worker's
photograph is published in local newspapers. Any person who hides or protects
her is committing an offence. When found, she is deported at the expense
of her sponsor. Usually, it is not easy to find a runaway domestic helper
either due to the ineffectiveness of the search-and-find regimen or the
craftiness of the runaways.
A worker can disappear for many years. However, a sponsor should report
a runaway worker within one week, as required by the regulations of the
General Directorate of Immigration and Passports. A special form needs
to be filled out by the sponsor. He is also required to renew the runaway
worker's resident permit in accordance with the law, until the worker
is found.
Once the worker is found he/she is put in jail until his/her residence
permit is cancelled then, the employee should be deported. According to
the regulations in Bahrain all fees related to the deportation, including
an air ticket should be borne by the sponsor.
Only a small number of domestic workers file complaints at the police
stations in comparison with the total amount of complaints registered
per year (9.67% in 1990 and 5.53% in 1991 of the total complaints registered
with the police). This low incidence is due to the fact that women house
workers are unable to contact the police or they are afraid to go to the
police, which could result in imprisonment and deportation. The majority
of the cases concerning house workers fall within the 20 to 39 years age
group (56.80% and 59.73% in 1990 and 1991 respectively). In the sector
domestic work, it is also mainly this age group that is represented. The
largest number of cases involve Sri Lankans, who are the majority of domestic
workers in Bahrain.
The Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs deals with labour disputes,
such as those concerning non-payment of salary, airfare and of service
indemnity and denial of annual leave. The Labour Relations Section at
the Ministry has lawyers, inspectors and social workers. In case of a
problem, the worker is required to fill out a special form explaining
his/her situation. The Ministry calls the sponsor in order to solve the
problem amicably. If this fails, the case is referred to the judicial
system. In this case, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs appoints
a lawyer representing the worker. It also follows up the matter. The following
tables shows the complaints registered at the Ministry of Labour and Social
Affairs by female domestic helpers, the nature of these complaints, and
the way they were solved.
In case of disputes of any nature sponsors had the right to request the
concerned official department to blacklist a worker and, therefore, to
ban him/her from returning to Bahrain. Under the current rules, a house
worker who leaves the country should have a no-objection letter from her
previous employer to be able to get a new job. If not, she must wait for
six months before returning to take up another job.
The concerned authorities are currently reviewing this system to allow
most categories of expatriate employees to return within the six-month
waiting period, unless they are involved in criminal cases in Bahrain.
Those who get a no-objection letter from their previous employers can
return immediately to work for another sponsor. They can also transfer
the sponsorship locally without having to leave the country.
The Government has also introduced, in 2000, a two-year multiple re-entry
visa for all workers. Earlier re-entry visas, costing BD12, were issued
for a single journey and for a period of one year, at BD.42 now every
expatriate is granted a two-year multiple re-entry visa, valid for the
duration of the residence permit for only BD.2015.
II Process of Assignment
II.1 Recruitment Process
House workers usually come to Bahrain with the help of recruiting agents or
through relatives and friends. In the first case, a woman seeking a job
as a domestic helper applies to one of the recruiting agents in her country
of origin. This agent works as a mediator between the applicant and the
agent in the receiving country, in this case Bahrain. The latter keeps
the worker's personal details and documentation in file to be shown to
potential employers.
When the employer obtains a work permit from the Ministry of Labour and
Social Affairs, he selects a candidate from the recruitment agent's file.
He pays a fee to the agent, which includes the cost of a one-way air ticket.
Subsequently, the agent makes the necessary travel arrangements, in coordination
with his counterpart in the sending country. The worker also pays fees
to the agent in her country. In some occasions, it happens that the agent
exploit the applicants and make them pay the air ticket, even though this
is provided by the employer.
In order to be able to employ a foreign house worker, the sponsor in Bahrain
has to fulfil certain conditions and requirements stipulated by law. Order
Number 13/1976 issued by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs states,
"… An employer who wishes to employ non-Bahraini workers should submit
an application in the prescribed form, for obtaining a work permit". Although
the Labour Law does not cover domestic workers, employers are required
to comply with the above regulation.
Moreover the employer who wishes to recruit a household worker should
fulfil the following conditions:16.
- Have a family income of at least BD. 350;
- Have at least two children less than 15 years of age;
- Submit a medical certificate if a house worker is appointed
to take care of an ill or old family member;
- The family should prove that they do not have a household
worker. In case the previous worker has left or run away, appropriate
certificates from the police and/or the Directorate of Immigration and
Passports should be submitted to the concerned authorities at the Ministry
of Labour and Social Affairs in order to obtain a work permit for a
new domestic worker.
After a work permit is obtained, the employer selects a candidate and
then obtains an entry visa, called a No Objection Certificate (NOC), for
the prospective worker. Once the domestic worker arrives in Bahrain, the
agent takes her to his office from where she is collected by the employer.
Before she goes to her employer's house, a short meeting is held between
the three parties where the employer states his conditions, mainly dos
and don'ts. The house worker is also asked if she wants to say anything
but, according to the agents, she usually keeps silent. The NOC gives
the worker the right to stay in the country for four weeks, this period
should allow for the regulation of her stay. Before the end of four weeks
of his/her arrival the worker has to undergo a mandatory medical check-up
including chest X-ray, blood, urine, vision tests etc. Special attention
is paid to infectious diseases mainly tuberculosis, hepatitis, AIDS and
sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis. He/she is then issued
a written medical certificate stating that he/she is physically fit for
work. The employer can, then, go ahead and apply for a residency permit.
In case the worker is found unfit for work, the employer is notified.
Rigorous action is taken in case the worker is found to suffer from an
infectious disease. Ministerial Order Number 11/1976 states that if the
Medical Commission finds the worker neither physically fit nor free from
infectious diseases, the Commission shall notify the Ministry of Labour
and Social Affairs of this fact within 24 hours. The Ministry of Labour
then requests the Directorate of Immigration and Passports to deport the
worker at the employer's expense.
It would for this reason be convenient if this medical test could already
be undergone in the country of origin. In this case, the worker would
not lose all the money that has to be paid to the recruiting agent in
his/her country. The employer is legally obliged to bear all the costs
related to the foreign worker.
As mentioned before, not all female domestic helpers find jobs through
recruitment agents. Some of them came to Bahrain through relatives or
friends working in the country. For the worker, this is a cheaper option,
since they only pay a small fee to the person who assisted them or nothing
at all. Also a considerable number of sponsors use this method to avoid
paying high fees to agents. However - according to the author - this method
is not always in the interest of the sponsor or the worker: The sponsor
cannot request replacement if he/she is not content with the performance
of the worker and the domestic worker has to accept the working environment
she is in, without having the possibility to make use of the three-month
probation period during which, theoretically speaking, she has the right
to ask for change of sponsor.
Of the women house workers interviewed, 52.94% got their jobs through
recruiting agents while the remaining 47.06% were helped by friends and
relatives already working in Bahrain. The majority of workers from the
Philippines come through accredited recruiting agents, while in the case
of the Sri Lankan domestic workers, this is not always the case. The Sri
Lankan government obliges its nationals to have health insurance before
departing to work overseas. The insurance policy covers the worker's deportation
to Sri Lanka in case of death, illness or accident. It also covers hospitalisation
while working abroad and up to 60 days medical treatment after returning
to his/her home country.
II.2 Recruiting Agents in Bahrain
A
Ministerial Decree, issued in 1993, puts employment agents under the supervision
of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs. A new agent should obtain
a licence from the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs against BD500
to be accredited to recruit foreign workers. He is then required to get
a commercial registration license from the Ministry of Commerce and Industry,
in the amount of BD100 per year. According to officials at the Ministry
of Labour and Social Affairs about 70 official recruiting agents are operating
in Bahrain.
Employment agents arrange the placement of workers with different skills,
including house workers. The average number of female domestic workers
placed by an agent ranges from 15 to 20 per month. In addition to Bahrain,
some agents provide services to the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia.
They charge different fees for these services depending on religion and
nationality of the worker. The fees are not provided for by any bilateral
agreements between governments, but are fixed by the recruiting agents
themselves.
In the case of domestic workers from the Philippines and Indonesia, the
fees are divided into two parts: gross and net fees. The net fee represents
the charges received by the recruiting agent while the gross fee represents
the entire fee paid by the sponsor/employer. The sponsor recovers the
difference when the worker starts working in his house. For example, gross
fees for a domestic helper from the Philippines is BD. 370, while the
net is BD. 220. The difference of BD. 15017
is paid to the agent in the country of origin to cover certain costs,
such as a passport and other government fees. In the absence of clear
protection policies by governments, such costs are borne by the workers.
As a result, the domestic helper has to work for three months without
salary to cover these costs. Indonesian workers need to work only one
month without salary, as the difference between gross and net fees is
smaller. These arrangements became sources of dispute between domestic
helpers and their employers as some of them are unaware of such arrangements
before their arrival in Bahrain.
According to the standard agreement between the recruiting agent in Bahrain
and the sponsor, there is a three-month probation period for new domestic
workers, during which both the worker and the sponsor can terminate the
work contract. Theoretically speaking, the worker can refuse to work in
the house of her new sponsor if the latter treats her badly or if any
member of the sponsor's family sexually or physically abuses her. In this
case, the agent should find her a new employer. During the research it
became clear that in such cases the agent provides the sponsor with another
house worker or force the women domestic workers to continue working with
their sponsors under any conditions. Also the sponsor her/himself has
the possibility to contact the agent and ask for a replacement of the
domestic worker in the specified period of time. In this case, too, the
agent is obliged to assign another household worker or return any fees
he paid. It should be noted that governments or embassies of labour exporting
countries have no contact with the domestic workers nor do they have any
input in the above-mentioned contractual arrangements. What is surprising
in this process is that the employer that abuses a domestic worker or
treats her badly does not end up on a black list. Furthermore, the agent
is not refusing his services in order to protect the women recruited through
his agency.
The probation period for Indonesian house workers is six months as a result
of the Indonesian government's intervention to ban its nationals from
working as domestic helpers in the Gulf, except Saudi Arabia, following
reports of physical and sexual abuse. In the case of Bahrain, the ban
was lifted only a year ago. Wages are determined according to the nationality
of female domestic helpers instead of their experience. Although the nature
of work and the workload is almost the same for all house workers, Filipinos,
for example, and Indonesians with some years of experience get BD.50 per
month, while inexperienced Indonesians, Sri Lankans and Indians get BD.40
per month. Domestic workers from Bangladesh get the lowest salaries, BD.35
per month18.
Five recruiting agencies were questioned about the main problems they
face with domestic helpers. They were almost unanimous on the following:
- Inexperienced house workers have difficulties understanding
instructions because of the language barrier;
- Employers are impatient with new workers;
- Some ladies of the house are jealous, especially when the
domestic worker is a young and attractive woman;
- Recruiting agents are facing many problems from the moment
a woman decides to run away from her employer's home, since they have
to deal with the employers, fees etc. According to the agents "…
domestic workers sometimes escape from their employers' homes to work
as freelance worker, for which they are paid at a rate of about one
Bahraini Dinar per hour. They also work in restaurants, bars, and nightclubs
or join prostitution networks. The police do not take serious measures
to stop this and no investigation into cases of runaway workers takes
place and accomplices are not punished. This only serves as an encouragement
to domestic helpers to run away". When the workers surface at the
end of their residence term, the sponsors are obliged to provide air
tickets to return home.
II.3 Recruiting Fees
The majority of domestics do not have enough money to meet the expenses
of taking up a job overseas. Sometimes, the agent agrees to receive the
fees in instalments. It was found that only seven interviewed domestic
workers were able to pay the agent in cash, while the others mortgaged
properties, borrowed money from banks or from money lenders, at very high
interest rates. The Government of the Philippines for example allows accredited
employment agents to receive the fees directly from the sponsors in Bahrain,
on condition that the domestic helper works without wages for the first
three months. Given this situation, a new worker is under tremendous pressure
and is willing to accept any work and any kind of living conditions in
order to be able to pay off her debts and send some money to her family.
Sponsors are required to provide air tickets to and from Bahrain for the
domestic workers. Despite this, only 31 of the interviewed domestic helpers
got free air tickets to Bahrain. Those who got jobs through recruiting
agents usually receive a free one-way air ticket. However, even though
the agents receive money from the sponsors for an air ticket, they let
the female domestic workers know to purchase their own tickets.
Domestic helpers who got their jobs through relatives or friends sometimes
bear the cost of their travel to Bahrain. Since no contract or agreement
is signed in advance women risk to receive their salaries irregularly
or no airfare is provided at the end of the two-year contract.
II.4 Working Contract, Salary and Medical Care
The
socio-economic conditions of Asian female workers are such that they refrain
from insisting on clear contracts with their sponsors. Consequently, after
arrival they discover that the working conditions are not what they expected.
The survey found that 44.12% of the house workers signed contracts prior
to their arrival of which 63.64 % Filipino domestic helpers, 25% Sri Lankan
women and all of the Indian domestic workers.
However a contract is not effective in protecting the worker's rights
as some sponsors tend to pay salaries lower than what was stipulated in
the contract. Moreover, the contract is not legally binding since the
Labour Law does not cover house workers. Two interviewed domestic workers
signed a contract stipulating a different terms of reference, while three
of those who did not sign a contract were promised other jobs, such as
tailor or saleswoman. On arrival, the recruiting agents gave them the
choice to work as house workers or go back to their home country on their
own expenses.
There are several cases where male sponsors bring women to work as domestic
helpers and lock them in apartments and force them into prostitution.
Unfortunately, due to the non-existence of a monitoring system or contact
with domestic workers, it is hard to trace these cases. Although a few
low-income families might not be able to pay regular wages, many complaints
registered with the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs came from domestic
helpers working with wealthy families. Certain sponsors hold three months
wages with them, to pay for a return air ticket in case the helper, for
any reason, has to return home before the expiration of her two-year contract.
In case of sickness domestic helpers can be treated at the near by health
centre. In fact, medical services are provided free of charge for nationals,
while foreigners have to pay a symbolic fee of one Bahraini Dinar (about
US $2.78). The survey showed that only 64.71% interviewed workers had
benefited from these facilities, while 8.82% domestic helpers said they
had not required any medical service.
As many families are totally dependent on the domestic worker to do all
the household chores, some refuse to acknowledge any illness that might
occur. A sponsor said that his family lives in chaos if his house worker
falls sick. Other employers choose to take the domestic workers to private
clinics where they receive better treatment.
III Profile
of Domestic Helpers in Bahrain
III.1 Homeland - Bahrain
Domestic
workers are making a big sacrifice by leaving their homes, to seek work
overseas in an unknown world. For most of them, the move to the Gulf is
also the first time that they leave their village or town. Many immigrants
consider the different Gulf States as the land of opportunity. The reality
is far different from that. Their days consist of heavy and long hours
of work, loneliness in a society that is totally strange to them.
Half of the interviewed domestic helpers came from villages, 20.59% lived
in their country's capital and 29.41% came from other cities or towns.
Those who come from remote areas are more vulnerable to the social and
cultural shock than those who come from cities since they lived a more
protected life. A woman said that her house worker came from a place where
there was no electricity and, as such, she did not know how to even switch
on lights in the house. A teacher said that the baby-sitter she employed
to take care of her little son had never seen a television or a washing
machine in her life. Many women do not know the heavy chemicals that are
sold in the region. This situation might pose danger to the workers. It
could also lead to the breakdown of the machines if constructions are
not explained well enough. However, employers expect domestic workers
to be able to learn everything in a very short time, which causes a lot
of pressure and stress on the women and within the household.
III.2 Age
Most
of the domestic workers interviewed were between 20 and 40 years of age.
Only 17.65% were over 40 years and they performed jobs, which need experience
such as taking care of a disabled or elderly person. Employers consider
workers with many years of experience as honest and reliable. The majority
of employers prefer house workers between 20 to 40 years of age as women
in this age group are physically strong and able to carry out the heavy
workload and also because they are "mature and respect the traditions,
more than teenagers who want to go out, have boyfriends and enjoy themselves",
as one of the employers stated.
It should be noted that the concerned government authorities do not encourage
the recruitment of house workers less than 20 years of age since young
people may be immature and would find it difficult to abide by the relatively
conservative social norms in Bahrain. In fact, the Directorate of Immigration
and Passports does not issue visas for domestic workers under 20 years
of age. For Filipino domestic workers, the minimum age is 30 years, in
accordance with stipulations put by the Government of the Philippines.
III.3 Husband and Children
Of
the domestic workers interviewed, 16 were married, one divorced, four
widowed and 13 were single. Within the category of married women, seven
out of 16 women had one or two children, 11 interviewees had three or
four children and three had more than four children.
There is no indication that marital status is an element in employers'
preference for domestic helpers. Those who prefer unmarried domestic helpers
think that single women have less difficulties in adjusting to their new
life in Bahrain, while those who prefer married domestic helpers assume
that married women are more responsible and dedicated as they need to
educate their own children, build a house and ensure a better standard
of living for their families. Also, as such workers earn higher wages
than their husbands, they are the main, if not the sole, financial resource
for their families and, consequently, they end up working abroad for several
years.
III.4 Educational Level
Among
the interviewed domestic helpers, 5.88% were illiterate, 26.48% could
read and write in their native languages, 17.65% had primary education,
8.82% had studied up to the intermediate level, 17.65% had finished high
school and 23.53% held a diploma or college certificate. All diploma/university
degree holders were Filipinos. It is worth mentioning that educated employers
prefer house workers who have a certain level of education, especially
those who speak English. Such domestic helpers are considered an asset
to the household as they provide an opportunity for the family members,
mainly children, to strengthen their English language skills.
On the other hand, an illiterate house worker has to depend on others
in her communication with her family or to send her wages to her country.
Also, it has been indicated that illiterate workers are more vulnerable
to maltreatment, such as non-payment of salary or excessive workload.
The presence of a compatriot in the neighbourhood considerably facilitates
communication with the host family or with the family correspondence.
A good alternative, instead of sending letters, is sending cassettes.
However, since this is a more expensive mode of correspondence, some employers
are reluctant or refuse to bear the postage cost.
Not all house workers are unskilled people. One can frequently find professionals,
such as pharmacists, teachers, nurses etc. working as domestic helper
either to escape the unemployment problem in their countries, or because
of the low salaries they received there, or because they were deceived
by the employment agent in their home country or in Bahrain. Such people
could have been promised other jobs but, upon arriving in Bahrain, they
discover that they have been brought to work as house workers. They can
return, but at their own expense, which is impossible for most as they
have loans to pay, so they agree to work as house workers until the end
of the contract.
Also educated women seek to work as house workers as a temporary alternative.
They hope to find employment that better suits them as soon as they arrive
in Bahrain. However this hardly ever happens because of the restrictions
and regulations on the expatriates' freedom of movement in Bahrain. The
presence of educated/skilled domestic helpers illustrates the brain drain
in the labour exporting countries. The following table shows the occupation
of the female house workers in their countries of origin.
III.5 Religion
Half
of the interviewed workers were Christians (50%), followed by Muslims
(35.29%), then Buddhists (14.71%). All of the Ethiopian and Indonesian
women interviewed were Muslims, while all Buddhist women came from Sri
Lanka.
Bahrain is a Muslim society. Yet, it is more open to other cultures than
any other society in the Gulf. Although no statistics exist concerning
the religious backgrounds of domestic helpers in Bahrain, it is expected
that with the increase in Islamic fundamentalism in Bahrain, the demand
for Muslim domestic helpers will increase in the future.
Discussing domestic helpers is a favourite subject of Bahraini housewives.
Their conversations reveal the reasons for their religious preferences
concerning house workers. Fundamentalists believe that employing non-Muslim
is an act against Islam. They also believe that a non-Muslim negatively
influences the family as the children could be affected by her beliefs.
Dr. Baqer Al-Najjar Professor of Sociology at Bahrain University thinks,
"It is still too early to judge whether house workers are affecting
the upbringing of Gulf youth". According to him," It will take
at least a generation to assess their influence. However, there is no
reason why the youth should become alienated from Islamic beliefs and
Arab traditions. If the parents want their children to retain the old
values, they will raise them accordingly"19.
Bahraini women who prefer to employ non-Muslims helper/nannies said that
non-Muslims are usually more educated and that their standard of living
in their own countries is higher than that of Muslims. "I can communicate
with them easily and I can trust them with my children," said a Bahraini
housewife. Asked if she has any concerns that her house helper's religious
beliefs would influence her children, she said, "The mother should be
the main educator of the children, not the worker".
IV Host Family
IV.1 Expectations and Experiences
Housewivesbr>
Asked
what qualities they expect women house workers to have, the interviewed
housewives mentioned the following: obedience, honesty, cleanliness and
hygiene. Mothers with young children said that domestic helpers should
also be kind and that the children should accept her. They said house
workers should also refrain from discussing the employer's family matters
with others. Finally it was said that they should be dressed decently,
especially in front of men and children in the family20.
Housewives mentioned that on arrival some domestic helpers pretend that
they do not know English or Arabic to avoid a heavy workload. Sometimes,
as interpreted by the housewives, they also pretend not being able to
follow instructions given to them, so they can get away with slipshod
work. "However" they explained, "this kind of behaviour is not
in the interests of the house worker as employers can easily return them
to the recruiting agents if they are not satisfied with their performance".
The majority agreed that they have to supervise the workers closely otherwise,
they will not do the job well.
Women Migrant Workers
The survey tried to ascertain the first impressions of woman house workers
on arrival to Bahrain and how they overcame any fears or homesickness.
The majority of interviewed domestic helpers had mixed feelings about
working in Bahrain: only 26.47% said they were happy, the others were
afraid, upset or homesick. A familiar sight at Bahrain International Airport
is a group of Asian women, sitting together, waiting for the agent to
collect them. Each one holds a plastic file, with her papers, in her hand.
On asking them to describe initial feelings, some said that they cried
for days when they first arrived. They regretted leaving their homes and
wished they could go back. "But, I had to think about my family. Everybody
there is dreaming of a better life and I could not disappoint them, so
I have to make a sacrifice," said one worker. It is hard for every
one to adapt to the new environment, especially those who have left children
behind. Newly arrived house workers can neither build new relations with
Gulf nationals nor with other workers from their own countries, because
of the following reason: "…If I let my house worker to mix with others,
they will spoil her. Domestic helpers compare their situation with others
and they start claiming for more,". said a sponsor.
On the other hand, a woman house worker mentioned that receiving orders
is the only conversation she has with her sponsor's family members: "Nobody
talks to me at the house where I am working and spending my whole day.
If anybody talks to me, it is only to order me to do something". Another
said, "I am not allowed to watch TV or listen to music from my country
or to the radio. If I am free and this is rare, I lock myself in a room
and cry". In general it could be stated that domestic workers in Bahrain
are socially isolated which could even lead to psychological disturbances
or depressions21.
Female house workers consider letters, bearing good news from their families
and friends, as the best means to help them through the first difficult
stage. The help and moral support they receive from other domestic workers
comes next, followed by good treatment from the employer's family, especially
the housewife.
IV.2 Inter-Cultural Miscommunication
The
degree to which a house worker is able to adjust to her new environment
depends, to a great extent, on her relations with the host family 22.
Most of the time, lack of knowledge about local traditions, customs and
social values makes it difficult for certain domestic workers to forge
such relations.
Certain labour exporting countries tolerate male-female relations outside
the marriage institution, while such relations or even receiving of a
visitor or simply talking with strangers by phone or on the street is
categorically rejected by the Arab-Muslim society in Bahrain.
At the same time, the way employers handle the domestic helpers reflects
their lack of knowledge about the workers' social and cultural background.
In most cases, the employers' approach is based on prejudices that are
the result of ignorance about the traditions, customs and social values
of the employees who will come to work and live in their houses. Local
media, in general, is not interested in addressing this issue. Moreover,
employers do not show any interest in learning about their employees'
societies. In sum, the relation between employers and employees is determined
by power and money.
IV.3 Necessities and Requirments
Accommodation
Female
domestic helpers usually live indoors at the sponsor's house. Most of
the interviewees had private bedrooms (61.76%), while others sleep with
the children or a female adult (17,65%), with other female workers (17,65%)
or even in the kitchen (2,94%).
The private bedroom usually has a bathroom. It is situated in an annex
out of the main premises (villas) where the employer and his family sleep.
Usually the room has basic furniture such as a bed and a cupboard. A few
are given a television, radio or a small refrigerator.
This type of accommodation is the most comfortable and allows the worker
to have a certain degree of privacy. However, since this type of accommodation
is situated out of the main building, some female workers feel isolated,
lonely and scared at night. Others use the opportunity to receive friends
or their partner - which they are not (yet) married to - at nights. The
latter is not accepted in Bahrain and, if discovered, the worker and her
partner will be imprisoned. Such cases are frequently registered with
the police. To avoid this problem some families build a room for the female
worker on the roof of the house.
Nutrition
The
majority of the interviewed workers said they get adequate quantities
of food and of good quality. Some of them stated that the food is more
than enough, and that they are free to eat any kind of food available
in the house. Only one mentioned that she has to wait until 4pm or 5pm
to have lunch and that she is not allowed to have breakfast until the
Madame of the house gets up in the morning while she (the worker) starts
work at 6:00 am.
Clothes and Toiletries
The
employer has to provide the domestic worker with suitable clothes, in
addition to other items such as shampoo, toothpaste, soap etc. The interviewed
housewives agreed that house workers should be provided with free accommodation,
food, clothes etc. Only one house wife said that she provides free clothes
to the worker on arrival in Bahrain but, after that, it is for the domestic
helper to buy whatever she needs from her own salary. 70.59% of the interviewed
domestic helpers said they get free clothes for both winter and summer
and another 73.53% is provided with toiletries.
The Bahraini employers deem the dress code very important. Some Bahraini
housewives regard the wearing of tight pants, sleeveless and short dresses
as a ploy to attract their husbands, while conservative Muslims believe
that such dresses are against Islamic norms and must not be worn.
Female domestic workers who are working with wealthy families usually
wear uniforms, while those working for middle and low-income families
usually wear the Jalabia (the traditional long local dress). Some
of them are requested to wear the Hijab (head scarf) even though
they are not Muslims. A few educated house workers, especially Filipinos
refuse to wear jalabia and consider it as humiliating and against their
human rights. It is worth mentioning that those who are not provided with
free clothes, or those who reject the clothes offered to them, have to
spend some portion of their meagre salaries buying clothes.
IV.4 Friends and Visits
Making
friends with other house workers in the neighbourhood helps the newly
arrived domestic helper to adjust to her new environment. They can help
her in understanding the culture and the traditions of the employer. Also
they can explain to her any difficult household tasks, especially if she
does not speak Arabic well. A little sympathy for her problems and being
able to express her feelings and talk in her own language can be a great
relief to her.
Housewives do not accept that the workers residing in their houses receive
male friends or relatives at home. Outside Bahrain, these practices are
considered violation of human rights. Nevertheless, the issue should be
looked at within the context of the social order in Bahrain. Women are
not allowed to go out in public with male friends or even to receive them
at home. Freedom of movement for women is relatively restricted. Thus,
according to the researcher, such a situation implies that female domestic
workers should also abide by local norms and traditions.
Only one interviewed housewife allowed her domestic helper's husband,
who is working in Saudi Arabia, to visit her and stay with her during
weekends. 41.18% of the interviewed women domestic helpers were allowed
to go out in the neighbourhood to visit other female workers, while 29.41%
were permitted to receive female visitors at home.
Some house workers pointed out that, in the beginning, they were not allowed
to go out and meet people, but once their employers became confident about
the manner in which they would conduct themselves, they were allowed to
go out. Nonetheless, this is not always the practice and more than half
of the domestic workers are deprived this right despite their correct
personal conduct.
IV.5 Practicing Religion
Some interviewed house workers pointed out that their Muslim employers do not
allow pictures of Jesus or Buddha to be put up in the house, so they have
to hide those pictures or sculptures in their bags. However, only a very
few Christian domestic helpers, working mainly for wealthy families, are
allowed to go to church.
It should be noted here that there is complete freedom of worship in Bahrain
and people are free to practice their religions. Besides two main churches,
there are Jewish synagogues and other places of worship for Hindus, Buddhists
etc. For domestic workers who are allowed to go out, the place of worship
provides a good support to them to help them adjust to their working environment
and help them to solve some of the problems they face. The churches also
provide financial assistance to foreign workers. They collect funds for
helping needy workers and visit sick workers in hospitals. In addition
they provide counselling to workers with problems and are able to establish
a link between the workers and their embassies or the Ministry of Labour
and Social Affairs.
IV.6 Watching Television Programmes and Using Telephone
When
the interviewed domestic helpers were asked whether they are allowed by
their sponsors to watch television programmes of their choice, the majority
said they rarely have enough time to enjoy this type of leisure and, if
they do so, they do not have freedom of choice. They have to watch whatever
the employer's family is watching, which is mainly Arabic programmes.
Those who are allowed to use the telephone for personal calls said they
pay for any international calls they make, while local calls are free
of charge. They usually have to take permission before using the telephone
and they are not allowed to use the telephone excessively, or to spend
a long time chatting. One house worker mentioned that she is allowed to
call her family on sponsor's cost twice a year: on her son's birthday
and on New Year's Day, but all other international calls should be paid
for by her.
IV.7 Maltreatment
The
survey attempted to find out whether female house workers face any mistreatment,
including humiliation, verbal insults, physical or sexual abuse:
- Verbal humiliation is the normal practice in many houses.
Adults and even children insult domestic helpers. Verbal insult is frequently
uttered. A word like stupid is used often on workers, who are unable
to retaliate. Verbal abuse is a common practice in which even children
of the employer indulge. This is a reflection of the level of discrimination
and xenophobia against foreign workers not only in Bahrain but also
in the Middle East in general.
- Physical harm is considered a crime by law. However, according
to a lawyer with whom the matter was discussed, it is very difficult
to prove this, especially when the abuse does not leave any mark on
the body. The house workers who experienced beating, sexual harassment
or rape were asked if they had approached their embassies or the police.
They replied they had not because they felt scared, ashamed, or because
they were afraid they would loose their jobs when they report to the
police. They are aware that if they complained, they would be deported
to their countries and deprived of a livelihood. Staff at the Workers'
Relation Section at the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs also highlighted
this fact. It should be noted here that domestic workers are not only
vulnerable to sexual abuse by their sponsors but also by the sponsor's
sons or other male teenagers visiting the house or other foreign workers,
especially if the worker's bedroom is situated outside the house.
- Six of the domestic helpers interviewed were, at least once,
deprived of their meals as punishment. Three were temporarily imprisoned
in their room as a form of punishment. To conclude, one could say that
her relations largely determine treatment of a house worker with the
host family, especially the lady of the house. In addition, the social
attitude towards immigrants in general influences the treatment meted
out to domestic worker. Some nationalities are looked upon as being
inferior and this racist view is reflected in the treatment of domestic
helpers.
Working
Hours
The
great majority of domestic helpers work more than 11 hours a day. Most
of them said they get up between 5am and 5.30am and are not allowed to
sleep until about 11.30pm. Sometimes they work until 1am or 2am if the
employer is entertaining guests for dinner. Some said that they do not
get enough sleep, as they have to take care of any babies during the night.
In sum, as the house worker does not have fixed working hours, she is
on duty all the time.
A total of 47.06% of the interviewed domestic helpers get a weekly day
off. It should be noted that sponsors and recruiting agents do not encourage
female domestic helpers to take a day off, as they do not allow them to
go out on their own. Some female house workers are also reluctant to have
a day off, either because they are not allowed to go out or because they
have no place to go to. A few wealthy families give Christian workers
a half-day off on rotation basis, to go to church.
Nearly all sponsors interviewed refuse to give their house workers paid
annual leave. Only one housewife said she provides paid annual leave to
the worker. However, 17.65% of the interviewed house workers get one month
paid annual leave per year23.
Since the Labour Law does not cover domestic workers, they cannot demand
a weekly day off or paid annual leave. They work continuously till the
end of the contract, which is two years, or more after which they have
the choice of either taking unpaid leave for two or three months to visit
their families or to leave Bahrain forever.
Workload
Heavy
workload is one of the main complaints from domestic workers. The employers
expect them to perform a variety of household tasks ranging from routine
cleaning such as dusting, washing dishes and clothes, ironing, beating
carpets and taking care of children, to gardening and washing cars.
Those who master the English language well, assist children in their homework.
Moreover, they take children to and from school and are seen with children
in fast food restaurants, in the parks and at children's parties and recreation
activities. Those who take care of babies are expected to feed them, wash
their clothes, play with them and put them to bed.
Female house workers often accompany the ladies of the house for shopping,
to carry the bags. Also, they accompany the family during social visits
in order to take care of the children. If the family goes for a walk or
for a picnic, the house worker goes along, to help.
Some families expect the domestic helpers to even mend their clothes,
sew new ones for them, massage them and sometimes take the role of a hairdresser
etc. In sum, certain families require a super woman to work for them.
The table below shows all chores that the women house workers are responsible
for. Some are also in charge of buying daily necessities for the family
such as bread, milk and fruits. Nevertheless, although it is another task
added to their heavy workload, going to the supermarket or the nearby
grocery is an occasion for the domestic helpers to meet others and make
friends. Therefore, employers try to curtail this social interaction as
much as possible, to prevent their workers from mixing with strangers,
especially males.
Car cleaning is considered a man's job. Usually Asian expatriates, especially
those on free visas, go from house to house cleaning cars. Nevertheless,
many women domestic helpers are required to clean the employer's cars.
The survey found that 38.24 female house workers are in charge of this
task.
Cooking is largely the responsibility of the domestic helper and 88.24%
of the surveyed workers do all the cooking. Those who do not cook, make
all the preparations for cooking (such as cleaning rice, cutting vegetables
etc). In other words the worker participates in the cooking process, and
in some cases she stays in the kitchen ready to any command from the housewife.
In addition to their normal work, some domestic workers also work in the
homes of the employers' relatives, especially when they have visitors.
In fact, Bahrainis have a tradition of weekly gatherings of the extended
family where sons and daughters, their spouses and children spend a day
in the parent's house. Women house worker accompany their sponsors for
such outings, taking care of the children, feeding them and, cleaning
and washing dishes. Although it is a hard work, the majority of them like
these gatherings because it is their only chance to meeting other domestic
workers. Of the surveyed house workers, 14.71% said they worked in relatives'
houses while 64.71% said they do so from time to time. Only 20.58% had
not worked in another house. One said her employer asks her to work in
the neighbours' houses. The employer pays her only BD.20 while she gets
another BD.20 from the neighbours. Another one said that after finishing
the work in the employer's house, she is obliged to go to the residence
of her sponsor's daughter to help with household chores and looking after
two children (aged 2 years and a newborn).
A heavy workload and long working hours do not in any way determine the
domestic helper's monthly remuneration. Average salaries are normally
determined by the number of years spent with the same family, domestic
helper's nationality and degree of satisfaction on the part of the employer.
Wages tend to increase with length of service. Certain nationalities,
especially Filipinos and Indonesians, receive higher wages than others,
while women from Bangladesh get the lowest. Of those interviewed, 58.82%
receive between BD.40 and 50, while 17.65% get less than BD.4024.
IV.8 Aspirations and Future Plans
It
goes without saying that foreign workers' motivation to leave their country
is to make a better life for their families and for themselves. In addition,
female domestic helpers choose this job to escape unemployment in their
countries of origin or simply as a survival strategy. The following table
shows that the aim of these workers is to provide for a better life for
their family members, not themselves. Single women are more self-focused
as their top priority is usually to save money for their marriage. If
the worker is lucky and works with a family, which appreciates her work,
she might receive gifts for herself. Some are able to save some money
and buy gold or other jewellery. This would be sold on her return and
the money spent on family necessities.
The same table shows that a large part of the workers salary is spent
on daily consumption, instead of being invested to establishing a micro-
enterprise for herself or her family. Since there is no regular income
anymore upon return home of the domestic workers, after some time, the
economic situation of the family starts deteriorating and the woman once
again has to take up a job as a domestic worker abroad.
64.71% of the domestic helpers said to save a part of their salaries in
bank accounts in their countries of origin. Most of them do not have accounts
in Bahrain because they do not save enough or because they are not allowed
out of the house.
In sum, working as a domestic helper can put a person at the mercy of
another, without any kind of legal protection. It is one of the most humiliating
occupations, especially in societies such as the Gulf. The majority of
interviewed house workers are not new to this type of job. It is noted
that a woman house worker prefers to continue work for several years until
she is able to build a small house or until her children finish school.
The majority of domestic workers do not make the decision to work or to
continue working as house workers. In fact their husbands or fathers decide
for them or the future of their children is their main drive.
V Embassies
The government of Sri Lanka and Indonesia do not have embassies in Bahrain.
The nearest embassies for these two countries are found in Riyadh in Saudi
Arabia. As a result, Sri Lankan and Indonesian workers in Bahrain have
neither access to nor representation of their Embassies.
V.1 Bangladesh Embassy
In
1989, the Government of Bangladesh banned the export of domestic workers
to all countries. The Bangladeshi embassy in Bahrain conveyed this decision
to the Immigration and Passports Directorate through the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. According to an official at the embassy, reasons for the ban
were as follows:
- A Bangladeshi women working as domestic workers abroad have
too often been exposed to harassment and sexual abuse;
- Domestic helpers face many difficulties due to the social
and cultural differences between her and her employer in countries in
the Middle East;
- Many Bangladeshi domestic helpers are illiterate, poor,
and need time to adapt to the different life style in Bahrain;
- Communication causes problems due to the Training them is
difficult because of the language barrier. Therefore, an explanation
could be interpreted differently;
- Sponsors and their families treat the domestic worker badly.
Many household workers are verbally and sometimes even physically abused;
- Domestic workers from Bangladesh receive very low salaries
and, in some cases, are not paid for several months or not at all;
- From the administrative point of view, the does not have
the capacity and is not equipped well enough to help following up all
the domestic workers' cases;
- Domestic helpers' remittances from Bahrain are relatively
low. Their saving are economically not productive as the families of
workers consume the vast portion of the remittances and hardly anything
is left to invest in the establishment of a business or to put as savings
in the bank;
- The Government of Bangladesh recently initiated national
projects to encourage women to work and stay in their home country.
According to the embassy the ban is still in a transitional period. There
are still a considerable number of Bangladeshi women working as domestic
workers in countries in the region. The embassy knows little about their
whereabouts however, they are informed as son as a worker is arrested
or appears before a court. Nevertheless, little is done by the to assist
female domestic helpers. The embassy considers illegal migrants outside
the 's responsibility. The embassy is of the opinion that arrested women
receive fair treatment from both the police and the Bahraini court.
The embassy estimates that monthly a number of 20 to 30 Bangladeshi domestic
workers are arrested for charges like theft or disobedience to their sponsor.
This number, according to the embassy, is negligible and does not necessitate
their intervention.
V.2 The Employment Bureau at the Embassy of the Philippines
The
Government of the Philippines adopted a policy to protect their immigrant
workers. The Department of Labour, established an Employment Bureau in
the embassies to look after the welfare and interests of Filipino workers,
including house workers. The Bureau is also in charge of promoting the
export of Filipino skilled labour. In addition, the Bureau assists in
the repatriation of sick workers and, in case of death; it supervises
the repatriation arrangements of the body and compensation for the family
of the deceased. In some cases, it bears the cost of such arrangements.
The Bureau also holds training workshops aiming at upgrading the skills
of the workers to make them more attractive to the Bahraini labour market
but also to enable them to take up new jobs or become self-employed on
their return home.
Although statistics are not accurate, the embassy estimates Filipino workers
at 18,000, of whom 60% are female domestic helpers, 30% skilled workers
and 5% professionals. This number of workers increases by 10% each year.
According to the Labour Attaché, the exclusion of domestic workers by
the Labour Law in Bahrain hinders the's activities in promoting and protecting
interests of these workers. Nevertheless, there are increasing numbers
of women who come to the Middle East to work as domestic workers. Therefore,
the Labour Department accredited recruitment offices that comply with
a specific set of criteria. The embassy monitors the 21 accredited agencies'
work. Any violation of the rules by these agents results in black listing.
Nevertheless, unfortunately, these measures have not prevented recruitment
of domestic helpers by other illegal agencies, which are active mainly
in remote areas.
The embassy provides shelter in case the worker has problems or disputes
with the employer. Some disputes can be solved amicably with the employers;
others are referred either to the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs
or to the courts, with the bearing all the costs involved in litigation.
The house worker usually leaves Bahrain after the dispute is resolved.
In some cases, the, in coordination with the recruiting agencies, succeeds
in finding a new employer for the domestic helper. This is possible only
if she did not complete the probation period of three months. According
to the Labour Attaché at the Philippines, three months is too short time
for a new woman house worker to get used to her new environment. He believes
that the recruiting agent should be responsible for the domestic workers
for the entire duration of their contracts.
The does not have direct contact with all Filipino domestic workers in
Bahrain. Those who are working with wealthy families may have some contact
with the embassy, while others enter in contact, only when a problem arises.
The embassy receives 25 to 30 run-away women house workers every month.
Most of the run-aways turned out to be so called first timers.
V.3 Embassy of India
The
embassy estimates Indian domestic helpers to be around 1,500. They come
mainly from three areas in India: Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Goa. The
large majority of them work for influential families.
The embassy is reluctant to have any relations with Indian domestic workers
except when a worker encounters a serious problem and appeals for assistance.
The negative attitude of the Indian embassy is due, mainly, to the following
reasons:
- The embassy Indian Government does not have a clear policy
towards domestic workers;
- The embassy avoids having confrontations with local families;
- Sponsors, generally, deny female house workers access to
their Embassies;
- Sponsors and the Bahraini Government do not encourage the
officials to visit or call the Indian house workers;
- The embassy is inadequately staffed to deal with all worker-related
problems.
The embassy receives only about six to ten cases per month involving
female house workers. An attempt is made to resolve the dispute amicably;
otherwise it is referred to the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs.
The embassy does own a shelter for women workers in problem, as is the
case with the Philippines embassy. Should the situation require, the,
in cooperation with the many Indian societies and clubs, finds accommodation
for the woman house worker and raises money for her repatriation. In case
of dispute between the house worker and the employment agent, the Indian
authorities are informed and the agent is banned or blacklisted. However,
blacklisted agents simply change their name and continue their business
under a different commercial name.
VI Case
Studies
VI.1 Case Studies: Migrant Women Workers
Case No.1
Among
the various interviewed women house workers for this research, the case
of Indra was chosen for the following reasons:
- Indra has worked in several houses in different villages and cities.
She has also worked in two Gulf countries (Bahrain and Kuwait);
- She has experienced contradicting treatments;
- She has experienced risks.
Indra
is a Sri Lankan Buddhist, about 39 years old. She is married and has two
children, a girl of 14 years and a nine-year-old boy. Her husband works
at the Ministry of Transport in Sri Lanka. As his workplace is far from
their house, he comes home only during the weekends. Her mother-in-law
lives with the children. She is elderly and blind. Indra has hired a woman
to take care of the household, at a salary of 400 Sri Lankan rupees per
month.
Indra
came to Bahrain in 1985. She worked for a very traditional Muslim family
living in a village. The family had a place of worship where women met
almost every day to listen to religious recitation. Indra was required
to attend together with all the women, besides performing the routine
household tasks ranging from cleaning to cooking etc. She said her workload
was extremely heavy and her salary of BD.30 was not at all commensurate
with her workload. She had no weekly day off or annual leave. She was
provided with clothes of cheap quality. Since Indra was not happy with
this family, she returned to her country as soon as her two-year contract
expired.
She then took up a job in Kuwait, which was a strange land for her. She
had to pay SR15,000.0025
(fifteen thousand Sri Lankan Rupees) to an agent in Sri Lanka to get the
job. When she arrived in Kuwait, she was stopped at the airport, as she
did not have a copy of her visa or the visa number. The recruiting agent
in Kuwait was supposed to meet her at the airport but he did not show
up. As she did not know his name or address, she was stuck at the airport
for three days. The airport authorities provided her with meals. While
she waited for the next flight back to Sri Lanka, an Indian passenger
gave her 10 Kuwaiti Dinars26
to call her agent in Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan agent, who forgot to inform
his partner in Kuwait about her arrival, gave her the telephone number
of the Kuwaiti agent and also sent him a fax. So, after three days at
the airport, Indra was able to enter Kuwait.
At the agent's office she was introduced to Mrs. (F.) for whom she would
work. The woman was pregnant and had six other children. Indra had to
look after all the children, she had to cook and clean the house. Mrs.
(F.) was employed, so she would leave the house early in the morning.
In the afternoon she took a nap, then she went out again. Indra slept
with the children who would wake her up often during the night. As Mrs.
(F) had relatives in Bahrain, she used to leave the children with Indra
while she visited Bahrain during weekends and holidays.
During his wife's absence, Mr. (F) tried several times to rape her but
he did not succeed. Once, when she threatened him with a knife, she managed
to injure him but not seriously. She was scared when she was alone with
him in the house and she would always lock her bedroom door. The children
did not respect her and were a source of frustration. Mrs. (F) always
shouted at her and insulted her. Indra was miserable and cried often.
Mrs. (F) took Indra from time to time to clean her mother's house. Indra
was not paid for the first three months, and she was not allowed to send
letters to her family. She ran away from the house and took a taxi to
the police station. The police warned Mr. (F) to pay her wages. Her employer
paid her 30 Kuwaiti Dinars for each month. She rejected this as her contract
stipulated KD. 40 and threatened to complain to the police, so she was
paid in full.
Indra never went out for shopping. She could go out in the neighbourhood
to buy things or with the children whenever Mrs. (F) wanted her to do
so. Nearing the expiration of her contract, she gave Mrs. (F) KD. 50 to
buy a gold chain which she wanted to take back for her daughter. Mrs.
(F) took the money but did not buy the chain. Moreover she refused to
let Indra go back home after the expiration of her contract. When Indra
threatened to complain to the police, Mrs. (F) took her to the airport
the very next day, without giving her a chance to pack and prepare for
her departure. Indra lost KD50 and her final month's salary, but she was
happy to return home. After a few months she succeeded in getting a job
with a Bahraini family, through a relative working in Bahrain. She did
not sign a contract but the family was kind with her. At the beginning,
her salary was BD.40, which was increased to BD. 45 after three months.
After a year, she was paid BD. 60 and her employer covered all her expenses
including air ticket and living expenses.
Indra considers herself lucky to be working for such a family. Everybody
in the family treats her well and respects her. She arranges her daily
work routine. The work is hard: she gets up at 5am to prepare breakfast.
Then she does the general cleaning of the house and assists in the kitchen,
although she cooks occasionally. The family trusts her with money. When
she needs to buy anything for the house she takes money from a wallet
of petty cash kept in the kitchen and buys what is needed without taking
approval from the lady of the house.
Indra said she does not need a day off, because she considers herself
as a part of the family. "Nobody here takes a day off," she said. "Household
work has to be done even during weekends." She is allowed to visit friends
in the neighbouring houses. She also goes out on Friday afternoons to
see her cousin, a man living with his wife in another city. They are also
allowed to visit her.
She eats with the family and there are no restrictions on what she eats.
She is at liberty to buy what she likes from the supermarket, paying from
petty cash. Indra is provided with new clothes of acceptable quality.
She wears long dresses in the house, like everybody else, but when she
goes out she puts on modern, but decent attire.
Indra said she gets presents, in cash and in kind, for herself and for
her children. Also she has sent back gifts for her family twice since
she has been in Bahrain. Most of the gifts were presents given to her
by her employer's family. However, before sending the gifts, she asked
her employer to check the boxes in which they were sent, to protect herself
against any accusations of theft. But the employer refused to take her
offer. "You know, they trust me," she said happily.
After working with this family for one year and a few months, her daughter
became seriously ill and her employer provided her with a return air ticket
to go and see her daughter. The family is not rich but they are humane,
she said.
Asked about her aspirations and future plans, she said she is satisfied
with her work, but she does not plan to continue working in Bahrain for
too long. She wants to be with her children. While working overseas, she
managed to buy a house and a small piece of land. Her children are at
school and she would like them to continue their education. She does not
have other plans for the future.
Case No.2
Jean
had completed 17 months of her two-year contract when she took refuge
at the Philippines. According to her, she was in charge of the children.
In addition, she used to clean two cars and did the entire domestic work,
including cooking. She had to rise at 4:30am and worked until 11:30pm,
without rest. Her salary was BD50 per month.
In October 2000 she became sick and was first taken to the public health
centre and then to a private clinic. She had to pay all the costs of her
treatment, which totalled BD. 53. As her situation became worse, she took
refuge. The embassy paid for her medical treatment. Jean said that she
did not want to go back to work, so she was waiting for a no-objection
certificate from her sponsor, so that she could take up another job in
Bahrain or return home.
Case No.3
This
case was taken from a letter written to the Ministry of Labour and Social
Affairs. "My name is Sue, from India. For the past 11 years I have
been working as a housemaid in the house of Mr. X. During these 11 years
I have been sent back to India only twice. But for the last six years
I have not been able to go back to India on leave despite my repeated
requests. Besides that, for the last 14 months, my sponsor has not paid
me a salary nor he has renewed my residence permit and CPR (personal identity).
Recently, I have been more distressed as I am suffering from severe bleeding.
The doctors who have treated me have strongly suggested an immediate operation.
Failing to do so, I might get cancer. Despite my repeated requests either
to treat me for the operation in Bahrain or to send me to India, my employer
has not taken any action and just turned a deaf ear on my requests. Now
I am in total distress as the bleeding has increased in the recent weeks,
and I have no money to go to the doctor. I have no relatives here in Bahrain,
so I am desperate to go back home. I don't know what to do, and I sincerely
seek the help of the Labour Ministry to intervene in this regard and help
to send me home to India as soon as possible, so that I can get the right
medical treatment for my bleeding problem. At this point I feel totally
helpless and desperate and just put my total trust on the intervention
and help of the Ministry of Labour."
VI.2 Case Studies: Sponsors
Case 1
Mrs.
Sami is a teacher in a high school. She has had a domestic helper for
about 13 years. According to Mrs. Sami, the helper was very kind and decent.
She was slow in her work but what she did, she did it well. She used to
receive telephone calls from men whom she said were relatives. As Mrs.
Sami is well educated and believes in human rights, she did not object
to the calls. She often saw money with her domestic helper but she said
that her mother had sent it to her to buy gold when she returned home.
After thirteen years of service, the house worker asked to return home
for good. On the day of departure, a man came to take her to the airport.
She introduced him to Mrs. Sami as her cousin. Next day Mrs. Sami went
to the Immigration and Passports Directorate to get a departure certificate,
which is required to obtain a fresh work permit from the Ministry of Labour
and Social Affairs. To her surprise, she was told that the house worker
had not left the country.
She was eventually found, with the help of the police, after more than
one year. She was working in a nightclub as well as practicing prostitution.
Mrs. Sami was shocked to discover that the domestic helper had been a
prostitute for the past 13 years, and that she used to leave the house
at night and come back before every body got up in the morning.
Case 2
Mr.
Mohammed arranged with a recruiting agent to bring a female house worker.
He completed all the necessary arrangements and paid all the costs. On
the day of the worker's arrival, Mr. Mohammed went to meet her at the
airport but she did not appear, although according to airport authorities,
she had entered the country. The police investigated in vain. The recruiting
agent refused to take responsibility but returned all the money Mr. Mohammed
had paid him.
After about eight months, the recruiting agent called Mr. Mohammed to
tell him that the worker was found working with somebody else. He asked
Mr. Mohammed to provide a no-objection certificate for that woman and
offered to reimburse him the fees of the certificate.
Conclusions
and Recommendations
As has already been mentioned, Bahrain's Labour Law does not cover domestic
workers. Also, foreign workers do not have the right to organize themselves
in trade unions. Their embassies endeavour to help only those who appeal
to them, and most of the time the embassies are reluctant to openly intervene
in order to maintain good relations with the Government of Bahrain (This
fact was mentioned by an embassy official, who was interviewed for this
study). Churches, mosques, societies and clubs (local and foreign) do
not engage in any activities that would provide protection of the human
rights of domestic helpers. In sum, workers in general, and female house
workers, in particular, are left alone to face their destiny in a strange
land.
Female domestic workers, especially those arriving for the first time
face difficulties in adjusting to their new lives in Bahrain. Their relations
with the host families, mainly the housewives, are not always smooth.
This is due to lack of knowledge of each other's culture. Moreover, female
house workers are confronted with numerous restrictions, which make it
difficult for them to build friendships in general and with people from
their own country in specific. Therefore, they often feel lonely and not
cared for.
Different factors can, however, provide a support network to the newly
arrived house worker and help her adjust to her new situation. Letters
from their family and friends play a great role in encouraging and motivating
them to continue working. Good news from the family helps a lot. Unfortunately,
house workers normally receive letters full of stories of illnesses in
the family, non-serious accidents, death etc. Such news, undoubtedly,
increases their anxiety in a land where they have very few people with
whom to share their feelings or who can understand them. Although some
host families are compassionate and sympathetic, others are impatient
and do not like to see their tears and ask for replacement. If a new house
worker is returned to the recruiting agent, he shouts at her, threatens
her and even beats her. Finally, she goes back to the employer or to any
other family if the first sponsor refuses to take her back.
In order to enhance the female domestic helpers situation in Bahrain it
is recommended to do the following:
- Laws and regulations should be amended to cover the rights
of domestic workers;
- There is a need to create a body, which would comprise Government
authorities and the concerned Embassies to deal with workers' issues
and problems;
- Importing and exporting countries should meet regularly
to discuss issues pertaining to house workers;
- Both importing and exporting countries should adopt policies
vis-à-vis domestic workers, in view of globalisation and free markets;
- Passport is the property of the worker and should be in
the worker's possession;
- The media, NGOs and social centres in Bahrain should undertake
public awareness campaigns on the culture and civilization in the exporting
countries as well as on the human rights of domestic helpers. The holy
Quran, Islamic traditions and the way Prophet Mohammed treated his domestic
workers should be used as examples;
- Domestic workers should receive some kind of orientation
prior to taking up their jobs, in order that they acquire some understanding
of the social and cultural traditions and values in their employers'
countries. The media can play an important role in this regard and,
labour exporting and importing countries should cooperate in producing
appropriate materials such as pamphlets, films and radio dramas, to
raise awareness on these matters;
- House workers should have training on house hold work before
arrival to the host countries;
- Domestic workers should sign contracts before leaving their
country of origin;
- Concerned Embassies should keep track of house workers and
should not deny them protection of their rights;
- Embassies should be adequately staffed to deal with issues
of migrant workers;
- Before leaving the country, a domestic worker should be
given full address of the employer and some useful addresses like the
concerned embassy, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs and the
recruiting agent;
- A woman house worker should be covered by social insurance;
- Employment agents in both the sending and receiving countries
should be controlled and monitored by the authorities in order to prevent
exploitation of overseas workers;
- The workers should be encouraged and receive training on
how to start micro-businesses in their countries upon return. In coordination
with international organizations, repatriation could be facilitated
if the domestic workers could enter in a micro-credit project;
- Labour exporting countries should adopt a viable economic
strategy aimed at creating jobs and solving the problem of unemployment
in order to encourage their nationals to stay in the country;
- A central registry of domestic workers and a database should
be created to monitor the well being of the migrant women.
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*The
designations employed in ILO publications, which are in conformity with
United Nations practice, and the presentation of material therein do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the International
labour Office concerning the legal status of any country, area or territory
or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.
The responsibility for opinions expressed in this study rests solely on
the authors and publication does not constitute an endorsement by the
International Labour Office of opinions expressed in them.
1 One US dollar is
equal to 0.376 Bahraini Dinar (United Nations rate- August 2001)
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