Women in Management. Missing rungs in the career ladder

Result	Consequences
Women usually earn less than men Women are underutilized Lack of access to decision-making functions Lack of role models	Reduced contribution to household income Lower competitiveness, economic loss for the enterprise Human rights and social justice infractions Perpetuation of gender discrimination

Extensive changes in labour market composition, with women's increased economic activity in a widening range of occupations along with their rising skill levels, has led to mounting pressure for more attention to be paid to the issue of women in management. In spite of the inequalities, women around the world have made considerable progress in capturing an ever-increasing share of professional and management positions. In some countries, women occupy over 40 per cent of all administrative and managerial jobs. Not only are women increasingly running as much as 30 per cent or more of small and medium-sized businesses in many countries, but in so doing they are creating jobs for others.

Research findings show, however, just how difficult it is to break through the glass ceiling. The higher the position, the more glaring the gender gap. Studies demonstrate that even though women are often better educated and qualified than men in the same job, they still have to work harder and perform better than their male counterparts in order to move ahead.

A very real and practical constraint for women to achieving high-level positions is the responsibility they bear for raising children and performing household tasks. An important feature of professional - and especially managerial - work is the long hours often required to gain recognition and eventual promotion. Career progression policies and structures are often designed to emphasize the period between 30 and 40 years of age as the most important for career development. But these are precisely the most intensive years for child rearing. Thus, women who want both a family and a career have to juggle heavy responsibilities in both domains. A more subtle constraint is that even women without family responsibilities are still seen as potential mothers, with the result that investment in their training and career opportunities is often given less attention than those of their male counterparts, thus reducing their chances of obtaining top jobs further down the road.

One of the main obstacles to women's advancement in the workplace is that of sex stereotyping regarding women's ability and willingness to accept positions of responsibility, especially if long hours, travel and relocation are involved. The consequences for many women include being placed in less strategic areas of activity, not being given varied and challenging assignments, and not being exposed to the range of operations and activities which are crucial factors for climbing the ladder to top management jobs. Since, as a result, chief executive officers see that few women have appropriate business experience and have not been long enough in a variety of management positions to be selected for top executive jobs, this situation is a vicious circle.

Fortunately, many enterprises are realizing that women's talents and skills are good for business. They are making moves to attract and retain women as professionals and managers. An important step in this direction is the adoption by many enterprises of an equal opportunity policy. Positive or affirmative action approaches often form part of an overall equality policy in order to level the playing field and give everyone an equal chance to climb the corporate ladder.

Measures such as flexible working arrangements, training and coaching, challenging and varied assignments, career and succession planning, and policies to promote family-friendly enterprises and to prevent sexual harassment at work, are all positive steps in this direction. Training in management skills, assertiveness training and on-the-job training in different areas to enable women to gain broader experience and knowledge of the structure and functions of an organization, are key instruments which provide them with the self-confidence, techniques, knowledge and contacts they need to forge ahead.

Enterprise "work and family" or "work and life" programmes help employees to reduce stress and be more productive. Features of such programmes usually include leave for childbirth and family care, child and elder care facilities or services, and flexible work arrangements, such as part-time work, "flexi-time", compressed work weeks and telework. While these measures often aim to attract and retain women, it is important that male employees also be encouraged to take up such options. Men may also have family responsibilities and thus need to find a healthy balance between work and personal life. If women alone make use of these measures, this can be a potential disadvantage because they may be regarded as less committed to their jobs.

Commitment to policies and programmes to combat sexual harassment are fundamental in preventing acts of unwelcome sexual behaviour in the workplace for men and women alike. They are particularly important for women moving into management, usually a predominantly male occupation, and one in which women managers may be resented by male subordinates, peers and higher-level managers.

Specific strategies which have been found to help women advance include "networking", career-tracking, and "mentoring". Women's involvement in informal enterprise networks is essential for collecting invaluable information, gaining visibility, and establishing contacts and support for obtaining higher-level jobs. As part of their human resources and equal opportunity policies, companies should consciously encourage and invite women to be part of such networks for their personal and professional lives. Career-tracking identifies women with high potential, and helps them gain visibility and experience through challenging and high-profile assignments. Special training may be provided, as well as coaching by high-level managers. Such career-tracking is available to men more readily, because of the traditional perception of management as a male occupation.

Mentoring is a process in which older, experienced managers engage in dialogue and exchange of information and ideas with younger potential managers. It is an important conduit for the transmission of the culture and institutional memory of an enterprise. It has typically been practised by the pairing of older and younger men in an enterprise on an informal basis. As a strategy to promote women, enterprises in some countries are introducing formal mentoring programmes for women with high potential. Since most high-level managers tend to be men, it is important that the programme be formal, limited in time and monitored to avoid the social problems associated with a man sharing power and information with a woman. Mentoring also helps male managers understand better the difficulties experienced by women, differences in male and female approaches, and the importance of including both approaches in the functioning of an enterprise.

Whatever strategies are adopted, the main ingredient for success in recruiting and retaining women is a firm commitment of top management to gender equality, including the adoption of a comprehensive approach to ensure that it is an issue at all levels - and that all managers are accountable for its implementation. Apart from legal requirements and changing social views on women's roles, probably the most motivating factor for companies to promote women in management is the realization that it is good business. Not only is utilizing the full potential of trained and qualified women a value-added advantage within the enterprise, but it also improves a company's image and, eventually, customer satisfaction with services and products which are more "women-friendly". Women's visibility as managers reinforces this, especially in relation to women consumers.

Gender! A Partnership of Equals
Geneve: International Labour Office, 2000. 115 p.

Women in Management
Missing rungs in the career ladder

Gender! A Partnership of Equals Geneve: International Labour Office, 2000. 115 p.

Women in Management Missing rungs in the career ladder

Gender! A Partnership of Equals
Geneve: International Labour Office, 2000. 115 p.

Women in Management
Missing rungs in the career ladder