Woman, training and work

Gender! A Partnership of Equals
Geneve: International Labour Office, 2000. 115 p.

Occupational sex segregation
Inefficiency, rigidity and discrimination

The extent to which labour markets in the world are segregated based on a worker's sex is startling. Approximately 60% of non-agricultural workers in the world are in an occupation where at least 80% of the workers are either women or men, according to a recent ILO book by Richard Anker. This means that a majority of workers in the world work in what can legitimately be regarded as "female" or "male" occupations.

The problem

This occupational segregation by sex is an important source of labour market inefficiency and rigidity. It represents exclusion and discrimination as well as a wasteful use of human resources, since many of the best qualified and most appropriate persons for an occupation may effectively be excluded because of their sex. It is clearly a major drag on the economy, and negatively affects the international competitiveness of certain countries. Labour market discrimination and inequality between men and women also have important negative effects on future generations. Since education and training decisions of parents and young people are based in part on labour market opportunities, occupational segregation and labour market discrimination negatively affect the amount and type of education and training girls and women receive. This, in turn, helps to perpetuate inequalities between men and women in the labour market as well as in their homes.

Occupational segregation by sex is to a large extent a women's issue, since it is more detrimental for them than for men. To begin with, women are employed in a narrower range of occupations than men. According to Anker's book, male-dominated non-agricultural occupations are on average seven times as numerous as female-dominated occupations. Furthermore, "female" occupations are generally less attractive, with their tendency toward lower pay, lower status and fewer advancement possibilities. One frequently mentioned example of the restricted career path of women is the famous "glass ceiling" preventing women from occupying the higher levels of management, demonstrated by the fact that almost 90% of managers, high-level administrators and legislative officials in the world are men.

But it is important to note that occupational sex segregation is becoming of increasing concern to men as well. In recent years, job growth has generally favoured typical "female" occupations (such as those in the service sector) rather than typical "male" jobs (such as those in the manufacturing sector).

The causes

A number of theories have been put forward to explain why there is so much sex segregation in occupations around the world. Some economists stress human capital, and the fact that women tend to have fewer and less relevant years of education and labour market experience as compared to men. As a result, women have different qualifications and interests regarding the types of occupations which suit them. Other economists stress the existence of segmented labour markets and how women face greater competition for jobs as compared to men, since women are "crowded" into a smaller set of occupations. These theories partly explain occupational segregation by sex.

Feminist and gender theories on this question are primarily concerned with non-labour market variables. They stress that women's disadvantaged position in the labour market is caused by patriarchy, women's subordinate position in society and the responsibilities they have for housework and child care. Data in Anker's book supports the feminist view, since typical stereotypes in society regarding women's supposed abilities (such as caring nature, greater manual dexterity) closely correspond to the characteristics of typical "female" occupations (e.g., nurse and nanny, seamstress and typist, cashier and bookkeeper, etc.). Similarly, negative stereotypes of women in society (such as less physical strength, supposed disinclination to supervise others, etc.) correspond closely to occupations where women tend to be absent (e.g., construction worker, manager and supervisor, etc.).

Statistical considerations

When presenting or interpreting statistics on occupational segregation by sex, it is important to take into consideration the details of the occupational data being analyzed, since the level of occupational segregation by sex observed is very sensitive to the occupational classification being used. For example, according to Anker, the "index of dissimilarity" (the most commonly used inequality index) in non-agricultural occupations varies on average from 0.25 to 0.66, in direct relation to the disaggregation of the data used in the calculation. And whereas women tend to be reasonably well represented among professionals (using an aggregated one-digit occupational classification), typical two-digit data show that most women professionals are either teachers or in the medical, dental and veterinary occupations. Finer data classifications reveal further segregation, since most women medical, dental and veterinary workers are nurses, and among teachers pre-primary and primary school teachers are much more likely to be feminized occupations as compared to secondary school and university teachers.

World levels and trends

It is important to note that there are large variations in the world in levels and trends in occupational segregation by sex. The Asia and Pacific region has the lowest average level, and the Middle East and North Africa region has the highest. Segregation levels are also relatively high in other developing countries, whereas levels in OECD and European transition economy countries tend to have rather average levels for the world. Interestingly, the high rates of occupational segregation by sex found in the world used to be much higher; there is convincing evidence that levels have fallen since 1970. According to Anker's book, there was an 11 percentage point decrease from 1970 to 1990 in the proportion of the non-agricultural labour force in gender-dominated occupations. This dramatic improvement, however, did not occur in all regions of the world. There was little or no improvement in large east Asian countries, and in some Middle East and North African, European OECD and transition economy countries.

The ILO's role

Occupational sex segregation has taken on increased importance within ILO and the international community in recent years with the ratification of the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, since "the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation" is part of one of the four core subject areas covered in this Declaration. It is clear that occupational sex segregation and the existence of separate segmented labour markets for men and women are important manifestations of this discrimination. Therefore, it will be incumbent on the ILO in the future to assist member States to increase labour market opportunities and choices - for men and women alike - by reducing occupational segregation by sex. Since a majority of workers in the world work in a gender-dominated occupation, it is clear that there is much progress to be made.

The downward trend in occupational sex segregation in much of the world is a positive sign. It is hoped that it will not only continue, but will spread throughout the world as well.

Back to index

The Inter-American Centre for Knowledge Development in Vocational Training (ILO/Cinterfor)
Avda. Uruguay 1238 - Montevideo - Uruguay - Tel: (5982) 908 6023 - 902 0557 - 908 0545 - Fax: (5982) 902 1305
webmaster@cinterfor.org.uy

Copyright © 1996-2008 International Labour Organisation (ILO) - Disclaimer