Woman, training and work

Gender! A Partnership of Equals
Geneve: International Labour Office, 2000. 115 p.

The Arab Region
Making progress

The situation

Arab countries are at the same time cohesive and diverse. The great majority are linked by common language (Arabic), religion (Islam), and cultural identity and heritage. As a result, the region is perceived as a distinct entity. However, there is a marked variation between individual countries, with differences in terms of economic systems, income levels, styles of government and adherence to traditional norms across the region. For example, it includes oil-producing countries with the highest per capita in the world, such as Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia, as well as lower-income countries such as Yemen, Jordan and Syria. There are also vast differences in the employment structures and value systems, even within the same country. These diverse contexts have distinct effects on women's employment opportunities and working conditions across the region. 

In the Gulf Region and Saudi Arabia, which are oil-producing and service-oriented economies, employment trends are charatcerized by the large number of foreign male and female workers. In recent years, however, as a result of global economic recession coupled with a decrease in oil prices, employment policies in those countries have focused on means of augmenting the number of national workers, especially in professional occupations. The impact which this will have on women's employment opportunities in those countries is yet to be seen. 

As for the middle- and lower-income countries of the region, until recently employment trends could be characterized by male outward migration, specifically to oil-producing countries. This has caused a proliferation of female-headed households in labour exporting countries. Economic reform, and in some cases structural adjustment measures, are a more recent feature of these countries. As a result, many women are facing increasing poverty and unemployment levels, appearing to be more vulnerable to these forces. Downsizing the public sector in view of privatization has also adversely affected women since the public sector is the largest employer of women.

A significant feature of the region is women's low workforce participation rates and high fertility rates. Indeed, high population growth rates culminate in high annual growth rates of the labour force and an increasing number of young people seeking employment. In 1995, the annual growth rate of the labour force was the highest among the world's regions, at 2.9% compared to a world average of 1.7%. 

Working women

The participation of Arab women in the labour force remains the lowest of any region in the world. Indeed, whereas in 1996, women composed 40% of the world labor force, the participation of Arab women in the Middle East and North Africa Region at the time did not exceed 26%. It is important to mention that Arab countries with lower GDP, income and education levels, such as Yemen, seem to have higher female labour force participation than countries with higher levels, such as Bahrain, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.

Several relevant factors must be taken into account with regard to the apparently modest rates of economic activity among Arab women. First, statistics do not necessarily reflect reality, since many women are non-quantified family workers, especially in agriculture and in the informal sector. Second, despite lower rates of economic activity in the formal sector, there is evidence that women's labour force participation and conditions of work are undergoing some changes. One indication is that the rate of growth of female employment exceeds the rate of growth of male employment. Another is that a significant proportion of Arab working women in the formal sector are in professional and technical occupations, due to the substantial achievement in female education and training there. Indeed, the educational status of women at the tertiary levels more than doubled, from 7% in 1985 to 16% in 1995. Still another factor is the increasing age at marriage, making more young women available for employment. 

Another issue is the rising female unemployment rates, which increased steadily from 1975 through 1995, from 13% to 21%, perhaps a result of the above factors. In general, women's unemployment is highest among economies undergoing restructuring and privatization. It is highest among first-time job seekers and those with high levels of education, a direct result of the growing size of the labour force as more young educated women are seeking employment. Unfortunately however, this does not seem to be coupled with increasing numbers of appropriate jobs in the labour market. 

Between 60 and 70% of women are working in the services sector. This is because of the gender-based perceptions of women's traditional roles and abilities, and because they are encouraged to go into the teaching and clerical professions. The agricultural sector is second in concentration of women workers. In countries with an agricultural base, such as Yemen, women's participation was up to 88% in 1994. It is worth noting that the Arab Region differs in this regard from other regions, such as Asia, which experienced a significant growth in female employment as a result of rapid industrialization. 

It important to note that the rate of women in managerial and professional occupations has increased from 11% in 1975 to 24% in 1995.T his does not mean that women are facing less discrimination and barriers, rather it is a result of their high education levels. Indeed, women in professional occupations are usually employed in the middle- or lower-level jobs.

Arab women workers in the formal sector are mostly salaried employees. This ranges from 100% in Qatar to 46% in Syria. But they represent as little as 6% in Yemen. Self-employment consists mostly of women in semi-skilled or unskilled work, and home-based production. However, in many countries there is an increasing visibility of women-owned businesses. Indeed, some have been mobilizing and self-organizing through businesswomen's associations, women's committees within chambers of commerce, or just networking among themselves (in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen). For both types of self-employment however, women face barriers ranging from difficulty in gaining access to assets and facilities, technical training, managerial know-how, information, credit, etc.

Factors influencing gender equality

Arab women no doubt also face, though to a different degree, an established pattern of thought, restrictive codes of behavior, and gender segregation which links family honor to female virtue. To a large extent, it is at the family level where decisions pertaining to education, training and type of employment are made. Therefore, family traditions may preclude women from working certain schedules, in certain occupations or locations, regardless of job opportunities and economic need.

As in other parts of the world, perceptions of women as secondary income earners and primary in their reproductive roles, influence to some extent private sector employers. Employers perceive women to have high turnover rates as a result of their family responsibilities and are hesitant to promote women or provide training opportunities. Recruitment practices display a high degree of occupational segregation based on both cultural norms in certain types of occupations, and the gender-typing of jobs, where women are relegated to certain occupations which are perceived suitable to their abilities or social roles. Wage differentials between men and women is another characteristic of employment in the region. It is often based on employers' perceptions of gender differences. 

This vision of women as dependent and secondary income earners is also ingrained in state institutions and political processes. Based on such assumptions, family social welfare legislation denies women workers equal rights to coverage for their families. Women in many countries have struggled to own businesses, or to travel without permission and legal endorsement of fathers and husbands. According to family law in most countries of the region, women inherit less than men, and have no legal right to initiate divorce or maintain custody of children. 

Regulatory and policy framework

Employment policies, and the regulatory and legislative framework which promote equality, are important elements in influencing traditions, family inhibitions and forms of discrimination based on perceptions of gender differences.

Most labour laws in the Arab countries are based on the principle of non- discrimination between the sexes. A considerable number of Arab countries have ratified the basic ILO Conventions regarding gender equality. Seven out of the ten countries have ratified the Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100), and eight have ratified the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111). In addition to ILO Conventions, political commitment toward gender equality has been demonstrated by the substantial number of countries in the region which have ratified the UN Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. Further political commitment is demonstrated by the number of countries in the region which set up institutional mechanisms for women's advancement after the Beijing Conference. 

Arab women, however, are still not adequately represented at the decision-making level. Their contribution in political decision-making processes concerning labour policies is quite limited, which explains why many such policies are not gender-sensitive. In addition, the participation of Arab women at the decision making level of both trade unions and employers' organizations is quite limited.

A look ahead

Further efforts are needed to promote women's equality at work. In light of the established norms and perceptions toward women's roles, there is a pressing need for consciousness-raising and gender sensitization at all levels: among women themselves, their communities and policy- and decision-makers. Indeed, significant efforts by governments, employers' and workers' organizations are needed to integrate women further into economic and public life. 

Despite the barriers and the efforts which are needed to promote equality, the position of Arab working women is improving. The institutional framework safeguarding women's rights at the national level exists in most countries of the region. For policy- and decision-makers, it is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore gender-equality issues, even if change is not yet perceptible. In general, women are more publicly visible and self-organizing in various spheres. There are increasing numbers of women's organizations focusing on equality issues. There are also more self-help organizations working on providing credit, training and entrepreneurship development. There is also the increasing visibility of successful businesswomen and the existence of some women in public office. And more and more young educated and professional Arab women are joining the labour force. Despite the difficulties that this young generation will face, many are able to realize their potential and are aware of their rights and ability to negotiate equality at work. 

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