Chemical risk assessment and occupational hygiene preventive measures in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)Chapter 2Extent of use Chemicals in SMEs |
CHEMICALS ARE HERE TO STAY
Chemicals are considered as basic ingredients for an improved quality of life. Their use in the forms of pesticides and fertilizers boost food production which contributes to the combat of famine worldwide. Their use in chemotherapy brings hope in the fight against cancer and their role in new drugs relieves millions of patients. Industrially, carbon fibres have been crucial to the manufacture of lightweight materials; and likewise, ceramic fibres substitute for the more hazardous asbestos.
Chemicals, moreover, can be hazardous if improperly used. Toxic chemicals include asphyxiants, irritants, narcotics, systemic poisons, carcinogens, teratogens (affecting offsprings), mutagens (affecting genes) and chemicals with dermatological effects. Chemicals also include flammable and explosive substances which have the potential of causing industrial disasters with subsequent dramatic effects on the workers, the public and the environment.
However, chemicals are here to stay. We must learn how to live with them safely. In this regard, chemical safety has been given a high priority in the core programme of the ILO in working conditions and environment. Chemical safety has been identified by member States as one of the major issues of this decade.
WORLD PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS
The production of chemicals has increased by 400-fold since 1939. Today, the world's annual production of chemicals is an estimated 400 million tonnes. Of the six to seven million chemical substances known in industry and scientific research, close to 70,000 were produced for regular use in the industrial sectors, agriculture and service. Of this number, only a few thousand are produced in substantial quantities for industrial use. Of the chemicals which are marketed, 5-10% are considered hazardous, of which 150-200 chemicals are known carcinogens.
At the European Community (EC) level, approximately 2000 substances are on the List of Dangerous Substances. In the United States, 2000-3000 substances are notified each year under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TOSCA) of 1976.
USE OF CHEMICALS IN THE SELECTED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Of the total worldwide use of chemicals, around 80% are consumed by the developed world. The remaining 20% are consumed by the developing countries. However, recently the consumption in the developing countries has been on the increase and the trend is likely
to continue in the coming years. In terms of risks posed to the safety and health of workers and consumers and damage to the ecology, the developing countries are faced with more severe and complex problems due to general lack of awareness about the potential hazards of chemicals and lack of adequate mechanisms for the protection of the workers and the public from chemical hazards.
Most of the developing countries require a considerable amount of chemicals for their agricultural, industrial and other needs. The economies of most of these countries are based on agriculture, therefore a sizeable amount of agrochemicals are required every year, as shown in Table 2.1 on the 1995 imports of chemicals and allied products in Mauritius. Similarly, a number of industries consume chemicals in large quantities. While evaluating the risks posed by the usage of chemicals, account should be taken not only of the volumes of specific chemicals consumed by a country, but also of the actual conditions under which these chemicals are used. For example, large fertilizer and petrochemical manufacturing plants may consume huge quantities of chemicals in their processes, but the actual exposure to the workers may not be very high considering the nature of the processes (i.e. enclosures) and the built-in safety measures. On the other hand, large numbers of workers in the small and medium-sized enterprises may be exposed to chemical substances, which although may seem insignificant in terms of tonnage, can manifest serious exposure patterns due to inadequate protection and unsafe work practices.
Table 2.1 Imports of chemicals and allied products in Mauritius (1995)
| Chemical Group | Consumption (Tonnes) |
| Organic chemicals | 4602 |
| Inorganic chemicals | 39988 |
| Dyeing, tanning and colouring chemicals | 3758 |
| Fertilisers | 46426 |
| Plastics in primary forms | 12299 |
| Pesticides | 1731 |
Given the high rate of consumption of chemicals, local production and formulation is on the increase as shown in Table 2.2 on the import and local production and formulation of pesticides in Pakistan.
Table 2.2 Import and local production and formulation of pesticides in Pakistan
| Year | Import (Tonnes) |
Local production/formulation (Tonnes) |
Total (Tonnes) |
| 1994-95 | 23442 | 17447 | 40889 |
| 1995-96 | 19946 | 19757 | 39703 |
Similarly, the volume of chemical imports in Pakistan has shown a steep rise over the last five years, as shown in Figure 2.1, and is expected to rise even further in the coming years as demand for consumer goods and industrial products is expected to rise to meet the requirements of burgeoning population and increasing standards of living. The situation is not very different in most other countries included in the study.
Given its heavy reliance on agriculture, agrochemicals are used abundantly in Syria. During the period 1990-1994, close to 800 tonnes of insecticides, rodenticides, herbicides, fungicides and other pesticides were used. Table 2.3 indicates the average national annual production of some of the chemicals.
Table 2.3 Average national annual production of some
of the chemicals in Syria
| Chemical | Quantity |
| Nitrates-fertilizers | 105000 tonnes |
| Phosphates-fertilizers | 42000 tonnes |
| Sulphuric acid (conc.) | 7700 tonnes |
| Liquid ammonia | 42000 tonnes |
| Detergents | 4000 tonnes |
| Phosphates | 160000 tonnes |
| LPG | 2 x 106 m3 |
In addition to its annual production, Syria imports a number of chemical substances, an example of which appears in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Average Annual Import of Chemicals by Syria
| Chemical | Quantity (in tonnes) |
| Halogenated hydrocarbons | 193 |
| Sulfunated hydrocarbons | 4628 |
| Amines | 97300 |
| Nitrogen compounds | 2000 |
| Metallic oxides | 1200 |
| Inorganic salts | 37000 |
| Inorganic bases | 13000 |
| Petrochemicals | 336000 |
| Petro gases | 10600 |
| Barium sulfate | 13600 |
| Dyes | 3400 |
| Other chemical products and compounds | 11800 |
MOST COMMONLY USED CHEMICALS
The study revealed that hundreds of different chemicals were used by the SMEs surveyed in the different countries. Whilst a number of these chemicals were known and identified by their scientific names, others were known by their commercial names only. The amount of chemicals stored and handled on a daily basis depended on the size of the SME. However, a list of the chemicals which were found to be used by the SMEs in the countries appear in Annex 2. The list of chemicals used by each type of SME appears in Annex 3.
Based on the survey of chemicals used in the countries under this study, a list of priority chemicals was drawn, as shown in Table 2.5. This list is by no means conclusive, but it presents a sample of the more commonly used chemicals at the national level.
Table 2.5 Priority list of chemicals used by SMEs
| Chemical | Chemical | ||
| 1 | Acetic acid (conc.) | 11 | Sodium hydroxide |
| 2 | Ammonia (anhydrous) | 12 | Sodium metasilicate (auhydrous) |
| 3 | Benzene | 13 | Sulphuric acid (conc.) |
| 4 | Calcium carbide | 14 | Trichloroethylene |
| 5 | Calcium hypochlorite | 15 | Cement |
| 6 | Chlorine | 16 | Gasoline |
| 7 | Chromium sulphate | 17 | Stoddard solvent |
| 8 | Formaldehyde | 18 | Carbaryl |
| 9 | Hydrogen Chloride (water sol'n) | 19 | Diaznion |
| 10 | Hydrogen peroxide | 20 | Malathion |
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