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Skills and knowledge are becoming increasingly important in competitiveness, growth and the creation of employment. As the type of skills are changing, training systems must respond to new imperatives, and offer flexible, demand driven ways of acquiring skills and competencies. Access to learning is a cornerstone to efforts for promoting more and better jobs for people, especially women.
In providing advisory and technical services to constituents, the ILO promotes the integration of training and employment policies; systematically accumulates information on practical experiences which can provide good reference points for policy development and formulation; supports debate on the priorities for human resources development; and demonstrates, in real situations, how actions to foster training contribute to the broader goals of employment promotion and social justice. A new strategic initiative, a Programme on Investing in Skills, Knowledge and Employability, which has been launched by the ILO, is one of the means towards achieving these goals.
The present review of experiences in the area of open and flexible learning shows how these models of training organization and delivery contribute to the adaptation of training systems in the changing economic and social context. Some of the issues, emphasized in the studies, are the need to strengthen partnerships between different actors - unions, enterprises, governments at different levels, private and non-governmental bodies to promote open and flexible learning, more profound and collaborative arrangements between training providers and employers, effective use of labour market information. Portability of skills is important for employment security. Workplace-based skills acquired from experience and/or by non-traditional forms of training are becoming as important as those derived from formal qualifications. Open and flexible learning is an effective means of providing 'soft skills, such as problem solving, team working, negotiation, sharing knowledge, time management, etc., which are becoming increasingly important for employability. Open and flexible learning contributes to the achievement of more equitable access to training, especially in promoting gender equality and providing training opportunities for particular labour market groups, such as older and displaced workers, the unemployed, persons with disabilities who are most vulnerable to exclusion.
The studies included in the review emphasize the importance of creation of an appropriate environment in terms of incentives and regulation, and especially the establishment of appropriate funding models. While the State continues to play an important role in training, the most efficient solutions involve the participation of a wide range of public and private actors.
The purpose of this publication is the dissemination of information on the experiences in adapting training provision to changing economic and social needs. I hope that it will contribute to meeting frequent requests from training policy-makers and practitioners for comparative information. This publication may also be of interest to a wider education and training audience.
Werner Sengenberger
Director
Employment and Training Department
The constant improvement of skills and work-related competencies is an objective in most countries, and the demand for "lifelong learning" is increasing everywhere. The demand comes from various parties: from employers who are aiming at raising productivity and competitiveness; from employees who seek employment security, better career prospects and higher wages; from the unemployed who seek greater access to the labour market; and from various "non-traditional learners" such as informal sector employees, self-employed persons, displaced older workers and other specific groups with a high risk of exclusion.
Because of their critical role in the development of human resources, training systems must adapt to rapidly changing technologies and new forms of work organization. At the same time they need to respond to social objectives. In line with these new demands, many countries are reforming their training systems and developing specific programmes with greater emphasis on the flexibility and diversification of training organization and delivery. The present review provides insights into the experiences of a number of countries. It includes studies of reform of the national vocational training systems in Australia and Scotland intended to make training and skill formation more relevant to current economic and social needs; efforts in the United Kingdom and France to promote open and flexible learning through various types of programmes and approaches; and the United States' experience in organizing customized training to support local development efforts and to improve employment prospects. The studies have been prepared by authors who were closely associated with policy developments in their respective countries.
The ILO frequently receives requests from training policy and decision-makers, training planners and providers for information on new ideas and approaches in the training field, and especially for information on experience and methods of implementation in different countries. This publication is intended to provide reference material which can inform analysis and policy design in countries attempting to improve and reform their training systems, making them more flexible and more responsive to the changing needs of enterprises and workers.
Gerry Rodgers
Chief
Training Policies and Systems Branch
Employment and Training Department
High-quality education and training of the workforce are increasingly becoming prerequisites for successful economic and social development. Indeed, according to the ILO World Employment Report, 1998-99 entitled "Employability in the global economy - How training matters"(1), education and training are basic rights of individuals; education, skill development and training are vital ingredients for making economies more productive and globally competitive; and education and training have a potential role to play in pre-empting or mitigating such negative phenomena as social and economic vulnerability and exclusion.
Education and training today, however, are different, or rather must be different, from what they were some three to four decades ago. This fact is being increasingly recognized by governments, training policy-makers and training providers. The main causes for these differences are rapid structural and technological changes in economies and labour markets, the effects of globalization and intensified competition, new employment patterns and the transformation of work organization and production processes. As a result, there have been significant modifications in the composition and nature of skills needed by the individual to perform satisfactorily in a given job and to progress in his or her career. Intellectual creativity, problem-solving capabilities, team spirit, adaptation to changes in products, processes and services, readiness to deal with innovations and preparation for new tasks, and consciousness of responsibility are only some of the new requirements, in addition to technical competence, of a contemporary worker. A recent ILO study(2) gives the following example of new worker requirements: "The expanded role of production workers in quality control has implications for both the skill profile of workers and the way plants are organized. Ideally, workers should have the technical skills to cope with new tasks in a highly automated environment and to master the analytical and quality control techniques that are being incorporated into their jobs; psychologically, they should be capable and willing to take on more responsibilities, to identify problems and come up with ideas on how to overcome them, which is the essence of the continuous improvement (kaizen) process; and they should have the social and communication skills to be able to function well in groups."
Rapid changes in technologies, production processes, tools, equipment and materials cause fast depreciation of the value of initial education and training, which is intensifying the pressure on today's workers to permanently sharpen their previously acquired skills and to learn new ones. Says John Hillier, Chief Executive of the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ)(3) of the United Kingdom, "Education and training used to be like the measles. You caught it once or twice when you were young and then you didn't bother with it again."(4) It is different now. Education at school followed by any type of pre-employment training is no longer considered to be a final education. It is at best a platform on which continuing lifelong learning can be based. Perhaps employers' most frequently expressed requirements of workers entering the labour market nowadays are flexibility and adaptability. A worker must be able to learn on the job, including learning new skills, as workers are required to move more often, both horizontally and vertically, within the group of related occupations or even to change their jobs completely.
Both enterprises and individuals are now facing the challenge of adapting to changes and, in addition, the role of individuals in the modernization process is becoming increasingly important. This was especially emphasized at the G8 Kobe Jobs Conference: "Opportunities offered to individuals should be combined with a recognition of their responsibilities to seize these opportunities. ... Individuals should be encouraged to take up new challenges and to voluntarily enhance and upgrade skills to create an adaptable workforce."(5) Self-development is becoming a must in today's world of change.
In order to better satisfy much more varied and constantly evolving training needs, there must be wider opportunities for people to acquire new or to upgrade existing skills and knowledge to cope with changing demands of the labour markets. In line with these requirements, training providers and policy-makers are looking for ways of improving the relevance of education and training systems and developing innovative training concepts and delivery modes which are different from those prescribed by the traditional time-based pedagogy. In this move, the requirement of increased flexibility in training provision is becoming a key dimension in the formulation of vocational education and training policies, strategies and programmes.
By placing more emphasis on flexibility, training systems will respond effectively to many current demands for skill development, specifically:
The five studies which are included in this review describe some different experiences in the introduction, promotion and implementation of innovative training approaches aimed at achieving more flexibility in skill development. They deal with the following:
The studies cover a wide range of initiatives to make training provision more flexible: from the nationwide reform of the vocational education and training (VET) system (in Australia and Scotland) and systematic building of the system of open and flexible learning as a route to vocational qualification (in the United Kingdom) to the introduction of specialized training schemes (in France and the United States).
Flexible training is considered, for the purpose of this paper, to refer to various alternatives to the traditional education and training systems and models of learning organization which allow for wider possibilities of skill and knowledge provision. The best-known flexible training arrangements are distance learning and open learning; the former has been in existence for a long time, and various forms of the latter have been spreading more recently. While these forms of flexible training exist mainly as an adjunct to the main educational systems, more radical reforms of vocational training aiming at increased flexibility have been undertaken in a number of countries. Scotland and Australia, which are included in this study, are among them.
There exist definitions of various forms of flexible training, but the terminology used in different countries might have different meanings or may be used interchangeably. In the United Kingdom, the term open and flexible learning (OFL) received official recognition within the educational sector. It is defined as:
"the learning situation in which individuals choose a mix of traditional and new learning approaches and technology, and study at their chosen time and location and at their own pace."(6)
OFL is a general term which embraces a number of major models of study arrangements such as, for example, centre-based open learning, distance study arrangements, flexible teaching arrangements, open/distance study using network technology, etc.
In Australia, the term flexible delivery is adopted, which is defined as:
"an approach to vocational education and training which allows for the adoption of a range of learning strategies in a variety of learning environments to cater for differences in learning styles, learning interests and needs, and variations in learning opportunities."(7)
The following major conceptual, organizational and pedagogical principles are used as guides in designing and implementing flexible training:
Two principal features of flexible training programmes have to be highlighted: first, they must be closely linked to employment, and, second, they are usually delivered in a modular form. Linking to employment means that training is competency based, i.e. the result of the programme is the student's demonstrated attainment of knowledge and skills required to accomplish the established objective or series of objectives and tasks relevant to a given occupational goal. The time factor is of secondary importance. The modular organization of training is based on the principle of giving the trainee, as he/she completes each element (modules, units, etc.), the ability to carry out a useful function or a certain competence and the possibility of accumulating skills and knowledge until he/she receives firstly a recognized qualification and then the opportunity for lateral and/or upward mobility.
The studies examine two approaches to promoting flexible training. The Australian and Scottish studies deal with reforming the whole VET system with an emphasis on the concept of flexibility, while those in the United Kingdom, France and the United States are devoted to different experiences in optimizing the training potential and diversifying the means of skill development through specialist training programmes and schemes based on non-traditional methods of learning and training organization. These two approaches have common components and elements or are interconnected in a logical and mutually complementary manner.
In Australia the major elements of the reform agenda were: a competency-based approach to training delivery; assessment based on agreed national standards; the modularization of learning; greater flexibility in teaching and learning techniques; more flexible training pathways; greater utilization of appropriate learning technologies; and the integration of workplace and off-the-job training components. One of the goals of the reform was to "open" vocational education and training to competition and to increase the number of choices for clients. The promotion of flexible learning approaches through specific strategies was one of the key activities towards this goal.
The main thrust of the Scottish vocational training reform was the replacement of long large-scale courses with a combination of national modules to allow for flexible acquisition of nationally recognized qualifications based on standards set by industry. The system is now based on the National Certificate Modules: freestanding units of learning and certification with flexible application and notional study time. Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQs) and General Scottish Vocational Qualifications (GSVQs) have been created (analogous to NVQs and GNVQs elsewhere in the United Kingdom). The SVQ is a group award based on a cluster of modules closely related to an occupation. One of the most important features of SVQs is the flexibility of their attainment. They can be taken at all stages of a person's career and they are designed to be delivered in a variety of ways - at work, in colleges and other training organizations. There are also a number of flexible study options, including full time, part time, day or block release, open learning, and distance learning. SVQs are designed in close consultation with employers in order to meet the needs of particular jobs.
Open learning schemes, as experience in the United Kingdom, the Moscow Region of the Russian Federation and France suggest, have substantial potential for VET provision. This is especially true for centre-based open study which is considered to be the most effective form of open learning. It provides access to study materials, a space in which to study and tutorial support. The possibility of using modern information technology is an additional reason for wider application of this type of learning. Centre-based open learning is usually organized in the way of "learning by appointment", in which the student books his or her time at the learning centre in advance.
In Australia, learning centres have been established as mobile or fixed learning venues. These centres are typically common-use facilities at the community level providing resource and support services. Clients can access the centre on a needs basis, and learning can be pursued at institutions, in workplaces or at home. Similarly, in the United Kingdom the government document The learning age, published in February 1998 referring to the recent University for Industry(8)(UfI) initiative, describes the learning centres as follows:
"These will be places equipped with technology where people can go and access UfI courses and materials. The centres should be within easy reach of most people's homes. They could be in their firm, in a library, shopping centre, or football club, or at a school or further education college. ... The UfI will ensure that learning centres meet the high standard required for providing access to UfI programmes. Like any other learning institution, the UfI will look after its learners offering advice and support to businesses and individuals. Everyone who takes a course through the UfI will become a UfI 'student'."(9)
Satisfaction of training needs at community level and optimization of the local training potential were the major goals of the French training scheme which was named SOFIE - an acronym of the French title Individualized and Europeanized Open Training System. SOFIE's mission is to offer "personally chosen" individualized training courses in many fields to the unemployed and to those in work, whatever their age, their available training time or their status. It is a complete training system which covers all the possible training solutions within a given area and which attaches importance to the individualization of both student itineraries and learning possibilities, whichever public and training objectives are concerned. It aims to offer a permanent service to all types of candidates for training.
Another example of the second approach is the Quick Start programmes of the United States. Quick Start is a short-term industry-specific training or retraining programme specifically designed and customized for a new or expanding company or one which must retrain its workforce because of changing technology or production processes. These programmes provide flexible and relevant training and contribute to the improvement of employment security and perspectives for local people on the one hand and to the raising of competitiveness of firms on the other. Companies that work with Quick Start training programmes find that they save time and money during the crucial start-up period. This is particularly true for companies that use pre-employment Quick Start training programmes which enable industries to have employees trained for specific jobs, so that when an expansion or opening takes place they can be immediately functional. The programme contributes also to the capacity building of enterprises for continuing training.
The major reason for the Australian VET reform was the comparatively low skill level of the country's labour force - a deficiency which was generally recognized by the Government, industry and trade unions. Flexible learning and training delivery was identified as one of the key areas within the Reform Agenda. A flexible delivery working party was established and a strategic document Flexible delivery - A national framework for implementation in TAFE(10) was adopted. The document identified the "traditional orientation and organization" of vocational education and training institutions as an impediment to access. Physical facilities, locational factors, and operating hours were features of traditional institutions which presented barriers to many prospective clients and effectively limited the capacity of institutions to deliver training. Progress towards implementing flexible delivery could only be achieved through significant systems and cultural change: "TAFE is moving out of its colleges and into the market place. It is coming to clients ... not demanding that clients come to it." The National Framework provided planners, practitioners and administrators with the foundation principles of flexible delivery and identified areas for action to facilitate the implementation of flexible delivery, specifically those dealing with organizational structures and processes, funding mechanisms, creation of a positive attitude to change, staff development, curriculum design, learning materials and resources. Piloting of flexible delivery is being implemented under the National Projects Programme, which includes numerous projects undertaken at national, state and territory levels. In accordance with the recently endorsed Flexible Delivery Implementation Plan, a series of ten research projects was launched with the ultimate aim to mainstream as of 1998 the application of flexible delivery at a provider level.
In the early 1980s, the Government of Scotland began to pursue its strategic objectives in labour market and education policy through the systematic reform of vocational training and unemployment programmes. A document The new training initiative, published in 1981, established the following main objectives for the country's training system:
The Scottish Vocational Education Council (SCOTVEC)(11) was set up as a company limited by guarantee with the task of producing modules and awarding national certificates. The Council was also responsible for keeping and providing a record of all modules the student has registered for and achieved, quality assurance, approval of all training organizations providing new qualifications, validation of newly developed qualifications and verification of the awards.
Although no system of open and flexible learning has been created in the United Kingdom, a series of successive initiatives has led to the acceptance of open learning as a normal method of vocational education and training at both the training provider and policy levels. The recent government training policy for lifelong learning intends to establish such a system linking what already exists into a national learning network. Central to the government policy is the already mentioned University for Industry which builds on previous experience in open and flexible learning and which is planned to:
Experience with Quick Start programmes in the United States shows enhanced collaboration among employers, training providers and government agencies in providing training for the workforce and effective use of states' training funds during periods of economic restructuring. The state governments attach high priority to these programmes, as they contribute substantially to the security of employment and business development which creates new jobs for the people.
Introduction of the SOFIE in France was a response to profound changes in the training market: an ever-increasing demand for training and moving from a "supply" model to a logic of "demand". This was facilitated by some decentralization of decision-making in training matters, specifically by giving the regions more authority.
The studies emphasize the need to strengthen partnerships and collaborative arrangements between different actors to promote open and flexible learning. In Australia, the adoption of flexible learning has been promoted at the national level; however, progress largely depends on the degree to which state training agencies pursue the agenda. Consultation arrangements have been established between the federal and state governments on information and resource sharing. State vocational education and training agencies have embraced the principles of flexible learning and have eagerly vied for project-specific funding provided by the federal Government to undertake pilot projects and related research activities. The Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) actively participates in the implementation of the strategy to raise the awareness of the benefits offered by flexible learning. Collaboration among training authorities, industry training councils, unions and private training organizations has promoted the adoption of a strategic document on the introduction of flexible delivery in TAFE. Implementation of pilot projects suggests a gradual transition to flexible learning/delivery. This approach allows training providers to work through the issues concerning the creation of a flexible learning system without causing major disruptions to their continuing education and training commitments. As many training providers need to maintain full education and training services during pilot/implementation periods, a gradual approach to the introduction of flexible learning appears to be the only realistic option.
The role of industry in the vocational education and training system has been formalized through the establishment of Industry Training Advisory Bodies (ITABs). ITABs receive federal government funding to research and formulate training plans in coordination with training agencies. The industry participates in the direct development of national training products under the Training packages initiative which allows industry to customize training. Each training package includes a set of core elements, comprising competency standards, national qualifications and assessment guidelines applicable across an industry or sectors. Training packages may also include a range of additional material such as learning strategy, assessment materials and professional development materials. Training packages facilitate the development of flexible training programmes to meet enterprise, regional or individual training needs, while maintaining the integrity of a national qualification.
An important element is the induction of students and staff into the system of flexible learning. Flexible learning requires a different set of expectations and skills on the part of both students and teachers. The self-directed nature of flexible learning requires of students a recognition of the learning choices available and an appreciation of the responsibility of self-directed learning. Equally, teachers need to recognize the expanded role which facilitating flexible learning requires, including a range of supporting responsibilities and maintaining communication with students beyond traditional contact hours.
VET funding models need to be redesigned to make them consistent with flexible learning, as well as with the strategy of opening vocational education and training to competition. In Australia, a number of options are under consideration, specifically, modification of government funding using performance indicators which are not based on contact hours, competitive tendering and an 'entitlement' or voucher system.
In the United Kingdom there has been a gradual build-up of interest in open learning through various programmes. With the injection of funds into the development of open learning schemes, there were enough people with interest and ideas. In the Moscow Region, open and flexible learning was introduced for highly educated personnel who were very receptive to new ideas, although adaptability to local conditions was of particular importance. In other situations, however, the introduction of open and flexible learning could be seen as a threat to established practices. Because of the complexity of open learning and the interaction of many elements for which different bodies are likely to be responsible, there needs to be some form of system which links the various actors and which has responsibility for making open learning work. Effective development and sustainability of open learning programmes depends also on the solution of issues related to such areas as awarding qualifications, quality assurance, information and advice, research, monitoring and evaluation, and learning materials.
Finance is considered to be a main constraint on the development and sustainability of open learning. Once pump-priming of project funding ceases, there is severe financial pressure on open learning organizations. When planning open learning developments at the national or regional level, the following sensitive issues should be considered beforehand: the initial investment; the relationship between costs and benefits; whether there are areas of importance but poor commercial viability which will require a continuing subsidy; the adequacy of the funding; the need for continuing funding.
Creation of a local system which is able to offer modular and individualized courses, like the SOFIE in France, requires that certain conditions be met. First, its usefulness on a social and economic level has to be demonstrated and in particular its capacity to conceive training which will respond suitably to the economic and social needs identified in the employment zone concerned. A virtual training demand must justify its creation and development. Also, the idea of qualitative changes and research must be totally internalized by the system's different participants.
Among the key issues in the Scottish vocational training reform, the following have been highlighted: involvement of employers, small firms in particular, in the design of vocational qualifications; teaching staff development; incorporation of broad and transferable skills into the system of unitized learning; and the availability of place, time and resources for the enormous increase in adult part-time students. As a result of the Scottish vocational training reform, a more relevant and responsive curriculum has been introduced which meets the needs of employers. Moreover, in many occupational sectors the overall aims and content of training programmes are determined by employers or by their lead bodies and local enterprise companies (organizations promoting the local economy). Larger firms, in particular, take full advantage of training flexibility and actually participate in designing industry-specific qualifications.
The main driving force behind Quick Start training programmes is economic development and job creation in the respective regions. Business organizations, industry, labour offices and private sector are partners in these development efforts. The essential element of successful Quick Start programmes is local capacity building. Participation of the labour agency staff, company representatives, along with the training provider, in the development of the programme at company level ensures the capacity to continue after the initial funding and assistance ends. Funding support from an international or any other external source is important to demonstrate the effectiveness of the programme at the beginning; this should be followed by 'mixed' funding from the company, government and participating agency.
Learning material is an important component of flexible training systems. The introduction and implementation of various open and flexible training programmes in the United Kingdom and Australia generated a large amount of learning materials and established specialist projects and structures to support these programmes. In Australia the Open Learning Information and Materials Clearing House (OLIMCH) acts as a central depository and information service on open learning course materials. An effective approach to learning material development was tested in the United Kingdom, where it was found that it would be easier and more cost-effective to train subject experts in the rudiments of educational technology and to give them a disciplined approach to learning material writing, rather than to attach highly qualified educational technologists to material writing teams. An experiment was carried out with teachers of mechanical engineering craftsmen, under the auspices of the Open Learning Systems Project of the Council for Educational Technology, in an accelerated workshop at Ferryside in Wales. The result was a qualified success, and aspects of the so-called "Ferryside system" have been successfully applied in the United Kingdom, India, Pakistan and Russia.
Information technology is increasingly being used to extend open and flexible learning opportunities in vocational education and training. In addition to the application of technology to the learning activity itself, efficiencies are also gained through applying technology to resources, support, administrative and management services. The Internet offers significant potential for open and flexible learning.
Effective implementation of flexible learning and delivery systems requires clear commitments by all parties concerned: the government, training planners and practitioners, employers and the clients themselves. As summarized in the Australia study, the creation of favourable conditions for wider introduction of flexible training delivery should be pursued by adopting appropriate strategies which aim to:
| "Much innovation, in practice, is rather mundane and incremental rather than radical. It depends more on a cumulation of small insights and advances than on major technological breakthroughs. It often involves ideas that are not new but have never been vigorously pursued. Innovation results from organisational learning as much as from formal R&D. It always involves investment in developing skills and knowledge, and usually in physical assets and marketing effort." (Porter, M. The Competitive Advantage of Nations, 1990, p. 45). |
During the 1990s the Australian Government has introduced reforms designed to "open" the vocational education and training market to competition. Through consultation processes established between providers, stakeholders and clients, the Australian Government is seeking to achieve collective ownership of the responsibilities for change management. A range of system-wide reforms is being pursued to accommodate increased competition between providers and increased choice for clients.
Many of these reforms can be seen as concomitant to the promotion of flexible learning. Indeed, in recognition of the need to raise skill levels among members of the labour force, the particular benefits offered by flexible learning approaches are being pursued through specific strategies. The combined impact of the strategy to promote competition and those strategies specific to promoting the adoption of flexible learning approaches are expected to achieve a significant extension of flexible learning in the Australian vocational education and training (VET) system.
In many ways this two-tiered approach provides a paradigm for the implementation of flexible learning. At the provider - client level, there are specific changes which must take place in the areas of curriculum design and pedagogical practice. These must be supported by system-wide changes which provide appropriate performance indicators, management information systems, funding models, etc.
In Australia the process of effecting reforms needs to be considered in the context of the system of Federal Government. The publicly-funded Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges are the major providers of vocational education and training in Australia. The TAFE system is administered at the State Government level, although State vocational education and training agencies depend on significant funding from the Federal Government. IMF statistics indicate that Australia's Federal Government raises revenue 1.5 times its spending requirements, compared with States raising about 60 per cent of their spending requirements across all budget areas (Goss 1996:91). Despite States' fiscal dependence on the Federal Government, the support of all of the State agencies is required to achieve nationally consistent reforms.
For some time higher education institutions have individually pursued international examples of best practice in flexible learning.(1)In the vocational education and training sector, TAFE colleges have been at the forefront of flexible learning developments. State vocational education and training agencies have embraced the principles of flexible learning and have eagerly vied for project-specific funding provided by the Federal Government to undertake pilot projects and related research activities. This work has been supported by consultation arrangements established between the Federal and State Governments. Information and resource sharing has occurred on an unprecedented scale, providing a wealth of information on a range of education and training issues, including flexible learning and delivery. Recently these arrangements have been extended to include Industry Training Advisory Bodies (ITABs).
The anecdotal success of individual pilot projects and collaborative research efforts belies progress on system-wide change. Nationally consistent arrangements in a number of key areas are yet to be achieved. For Australia, the need to achieve national uniformity might be likened to the need for common-border countries to have agreed qualification standards and recognition arrangements which facilitate the mobility of students and labour. Where such arrangements are not well established, the operation of the training and labour markets will be impeded. Significantly, agreement is also yet to be reached on a national funding model which would accommodate greater competition and different delivery modes. Some of the proposals being considered are discussed in Section 5.
While these major issues remain unresolved, flexible learning initiatives pursued as local ventures, however modest, provide a practical way forward. In many cases, local ventures have provided impetus to the wider adoption of flexible learning systems. The recent involvement of industry under the Training Packages initiative (see Section 8) and the growing number of private providers extends the scope and possibilities for flexible learning and delivery. In many instances, firms are pursuing the education and training needs of their employees with a suite of flexible learning products and systems, developed both in Australia and overseas.
This paper identifies recent government initiatives to promote flexible learning and considers the experiences of providers in implementing flexible learning and delivery systems in Australia.
Throughout its history, Australia had relied on the importation of skilled labour. That is, the accumulation of human capital in Australia had followed a pattern whereby people with skills acquired in overseas countries have been attracted and/or assisted to migrate to Australia. This phenomenon might be considered as a reasonable adjunct to Australia's history of recent colonization and general reliance on capital from overseas, which enabled it to exploit its natural resource endowments.
The accumulation of human capital by this means was promoted by both colonial and federal governments. In times of economic growth and high wages, Australia's attractiveness to migrants was understandably high. Skilled migrants with sufficient mobility could take advantage of wage differentials and other incentives that were offered from time to time (such as assisted passage and subsidized land for settlers).
The impact on the profile of Australia's labour force was significant. During the 1950s migrant workers contributed to over 66 per cent of the net increase in Australia's manufacturing workforce. In the 1960s a decline in the number of Australian-born manufacturing workers was supplemented by a further increase in the number of migrant workers (Dyster and Meredith, 1990: 259). The emphasis placed on skill levels was reflected in migrant entry requirements associated with various immigration policies through to the 1970s.
Through this process, Australia's skill-intensive industries came to depend on imported human capital. The implications of relying on this pattern of human capital accumulation on the nation's vocational education and training effort were apparent. Over the period 1964 to 1971 Federal Government expenditure on VET was A$ 106 million, or about 0.001 per cent of GDP (Schofield, 1994: 58). The contribution to vocational education and training by the private sector over the period was minor, primarily involving the traditional workplace instruction of apprentices.
In the early 1970s Australia experienced a rapid decline in its terms of trade. Due to Australia's reliance on exports of primary products, the decline in commodity prices depressed incomes to a greater extent than in other OECD countries. The associated declines in growth and rapidly escalating inflation marked the appearance of stagflation in the Australian economy. In sharp contrast to the relative stability of the 1960s, Australia's labour market experienced a significant increase in unemployment. This quantum shift in the level of unemployment marked a structural adjustment in the Australian economy and labour market.
The change in economic conditions also reduced Australia's ability to rely on immigration as the primary source of additions to the country's human capital. In less prosperous times attracting migrants was not a reliable method of supplementing skill shortages in the local labour market. Australia's practice of 'importing' a large part of its human capital came under political scrutiny as the number of unemployed increased.
Conditions in the economy and the labour force had reached a critical point and the issues of unemployment and skills needed to be addressed in an integrated way. Immigration continued, but less emphasis was placed on the skills of prospective migrants. To improve its international competitiveness, Australia needed to focus on the skill levels of its workforce.(2)
Over this period vocational education and training had been modelled on the United Kingdom system of the time. The system was largely neglected until the early 1970s, with shortages in particular skill areas being supplemented by the immigration of ready-skilled workers. Additions to human capital through the mechanism of migration had distracted attention away from the education and training priorities presented by changing economic conditions. As a result, the local labour market was less responsive to the conditions of the 1970s and this impeded the economy's capacity to recover. To some extent this problem remains today.
In 1973 the Australian Committee on Technical and Further Education (ACOTAFE) was established to advise the Federal Government on issues in Australia's vocational education and training system. The Committee, also known as the Kangan Committee, consisted of Myer Kangan (Chairperson), Deputy Secretary of the Australian Department of Labour, representatives of State education systems, industry and unions. The Report, provided to the Government in April 1974, identified the importance of Australia's technical and further education (TAFE) sector. Key findings included:
(Australian Committee on Technical and Further Education, 1975: xviii).
Other OECD countries were pursuing similar strategies; indeed the ACOTAFE acknowledged the guiding influence of the UNESCO International Commission on the Development of Education 1972 report Learning to be: The world of education today and tomorrow.
The ACOTAFE Report was a milestone in the development of vocational education policy in Australia. The Report identified a number of key principles which remain relevant today:
While the ACOTAFE Report emphasized a non-prescriptive, humanist approach based on principles of equity and democracy, it also recognized (although outside its formal terms of reference) the area of industry training as an important adjunct to the institution-based vocational education and training which continues to form the basis of the Australian system. Occupational relevance was identified as a key principle in courses.
In adopting the recommendations of the ACOTAFE Report, the Federal Government demonstrated its commitment to TAFE through recurrent and capital grants which provided State systems with the means to implement significant reforms and upgrade facilities. The 1974 Federal Budget allocated A$ 96.5 million to TAFE over two years, an amount almost equal to the total spent by the Federal Government over the previous ten years (Schofield, 1994: 58).
The commitment of the Federal Government was reflected in practical advances in key areas. The TAFE Commission was established to co-ordinate national policies and structures and to fund State systems (Goozee, 1993: 38). Key areas for development included nationally consistent curriculum, accreditation and qualifications. In pursuing the goal of national accreditation, a committee was established to examine the fields of electrical engineering and business studies.
In terms of participation, the change in student numbers over the period provides some indication of the implications of the additional focus. "In the first year for which we have defensible national enrolment figures, 1976, there were 768 000 students, of whom less than 40 000 were full time. In 1982 enrolments totalled 1 027 000 with 62 000 full time students. Over the same period TAFE expenditure in constant values rose by nearly 50 per cent from $667 million to $965 million". (Schofield, 1994: 69).
In 1973 the Federal Government had also pursued the area of industry training through a separate process. The National Training Council was established to guide the extension of training systems within industries. Industry training committees comprising government, industry and employee representatives were set up to facilitate this process. These would become the present day Industry Training Advisory Bodies (ITABs), which form an integral part of vocational education and training planning.
A Committee of Inquiry into Labour Market Training was established to report on the relationship between training and labour market policies. Key recommendations included:
An important outcome of this report was the creation of a number of financial assistance schemes available to both individuals and employers involved in training (Goozee, 1993: 28).
Implicit in the Federal Government's approach of separately establishing ACOTAFE and the NTC/Inquiry into Labour Market Training was the recognition of the individual:
"The [ACOTAFE] Report envisages a major shift of emphasis. It abandons the narrow and rigid concept that technical colleges exist simply to meet the manpower needs of industry, and adopts a broader concept that they exist to meet the needs of people as individuals ... The Report takes a long step in the direction of lifelong education and of opportunities for re-entry to education. It recommends unrestricted access for adults to vocationally oriented education." Hon. K Beazley, Federal Minister for Education, 1974 (in Goozee, 1993: 24).
Vocational education and training has remained a priority for successive Federal Governments.
Many of the principles of flexible learning had been enshrined in Australia's distance education system over a number of years. Australia had a history of using broadcast media to provide educational services, such as the school of the air, an interactive radio service which allowed school teachers to communicate with students over a number of different, typically remote, locations. The impetus to this innovation was recognition by government of its responsibility to provide educational services to the children of farmers, for whom attendance at school institutions was not feasible due to locational factors.
Flexible delivery modes had also been used for some time in the area of Adult and Community Education (ACE). This area of study was considered an adjunct to the mainstream vocational education and training system, with ACE courses typically being awarded lower-level certificate qualifications. Modules in ACE were offered in flexible delivery modes in recognition of widespread community interest, especially among mature age students, in acquiring additional skills across a range of areas while continuing to manage employment/personal commitments.
In the university sector, Monash University's Distance Education Centre had commenced delivery of units using the national broadcasting service as a medium. This demonstrated the application of flexible delivery through a popular medium, although it was limited to the 'passive' presentation of learning material. However, in addition to delivering information to its primary client group, the broadcasts may have also served to increase community awareness and acceptance of the concept of flexible learning.
While innovative in their approaches, the application of flexible delivery as a feature of ACE, along with developments being pursued by universities, mainly offered examples in relation to curriculum design and flexible delivery modes. Developments in a number of other areas would need to proceed to complete the suite of features necessary for the implementation of flexible learning systems.
Implementation of the principles of flexible delivery requires the integration of strategies to design and formulate curricula, assessment tools, performance and evaluation measures which utilize various forms of media and technology in delivery. In this holistic sense, flexible learning and delivery has only recently emerged as a feature of coordinated strategies for vocational education and training in Australia.
3.1 Initiatives to promote flexible learning
National Training Reform Agenda
Economic imperatives continue to highlight the need for Australia to raise skill levels. The comparatively low proportion of the Australian labour force with post-school qualifications is a deficiency generally recognized by government, industry and unions alike. The Australian Council of Trade Unions reports Australia Reconstructed 1986 (AGPS 1987) and A Programme Towards Full Employment 1993 indicate that the union movement sees the reduction of unemployment as a pre-eminent step in improving the economic and social well-being of individuals. The important principles outlined in the ACOTAFE Report remain relevant, but the process for providing for individual welfare has come to focus on increasing individual employability.
While progress on major issues continued over subsequent years, (3) the diffusion of responsibility brought about by the proliferation of committees made the management of the national process cumbersome. The National Training Reform Agenda (NTRA) was established as an attempt to provide a new focus to the reforms being pursued in the sector.
Under the NTRA, reforms were linked to specific objectives. The set of objectives described as the National Training Reform Agenda comprised the initiatives of consecutive Ministerial Councils for Vocational Education and Training (Ministers from Federal, State and Territory governments) over the period since 1989.
While these initiatives had a common theme in reforming Australia's training system, they were pursued in a somewhat disparate way. The 'agenda' for training reform itself became overly complex in terms of the clarity of relationships between policies and national system goals.
In 1990 the report of the Training Costs Review Committee was considered by the Ministerial Council. Improved efficiency in the TAFE sector was to be facilitated through the development of a national training curriculum and accreditation system. Also identified was the need for TAFE to form closer links with industry to improve the relevance and responsiveness of TAFE education and training to industry needs.
In 1992 Common and Agreed Goals for Vocational Education and Training in Australia were endorsed by Federal, State and Territory Ministers. Again the emphasis was on cooperation, but the involvement of industry became more formalized. Also in that year, agreement was reached through the Council of Australian Governments to establish the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA).
Legislation passed by the Federal Government set out the functions of the Authority and its role in allocating and paying funds to the State systems. The Federal Government injected additional funding into State vocational education and training (VET) systems which, through monitoring conducted by ANTA under its training profiles methodology, was related to State performance in terms of 'training effort' and progress toward reforms. Funding was also provided for research into areas identified as key initiatives in vocational education and training. One of the key areas is flexible learning/delivery.
Flexible Delivery Working Party
In 1991 the Flexible Delivery Working Party (FDWP) was established for the purpose of developing integrated strategies for applying flexible delivery to vocational education and training in Australia. Consultation with the Vocational Education and Training Advisory Council (VETAC), State government TAFE systems, industry training councils, unions and private training organizations provided input to the strategic document: Flexible Delivery - A National Framework for Implementation in TAFE (1992).
Endorsed by Australia's National TAFE Chief Executives Committee in 1992 as the blueprint for implementing flexible delivery in Australia's vocational education and training system, the report defines flexible delivery and identified a number of key characteristics.
"Flexible Delivery is an approach to vocational education and training which allows for the adoption of a range of learning strategies in a variety of learning environments to cater for differences in learning styles, learning interests and needs, and variations in learning opportunities.
Flexible delivery is characterized by:
Flexible delivery finds expression in many ways including:
The National Framework
The purpose of the National Framework is to:
The National Framework provided planners, practitioners and administrators with the foundation principles of flexible delivery. Although primarily developed for the public-funded TAFE system, the principles identified in the document are relevant to all education and training sector participants in understanding the opportunities, roles and responsibilities of flexible delivery.
The National Framework was developed to be consistent with national system goals developed under the National Training Reform Agenda. These goals included a competency-based approach to delivery; assessment based on agreed national standards; the modularization of learning; greater flexibility in teaching and learning techniques; more flexible training pathways; greater utilization of appropriate learning technologies; and the integration of workplace and off-the-job training components.
The 'traditional orientation and organization' of vocational education and training institutions was identified as an impediment to access (FDWP, 1992: 1). Physical facilities, locational factors, and operating hours were features of traditional institutions which presented barriers to many prospective clients and effectively limited the capacity of institutions to deliver training. Progress toward implementing flexible delivery could only be achieved through significant systems and cultural change: "TAFE is moving out of its colleges and into the market place. It is coming to clients ... not demanding that clients come to it." (FDWP,1992:5).
Beyond the institutions themselves, system-wide changes to national standards
for learning materials, delivery strategies, professional development and
operating structures would be required. The National Framework identified a
number of areas for action to facilitate the implementation of flexible delivery:
Various aspects of flexible delivery
In addition to the Flexible Delivery - A National Framework for Implementation
in TAFE (1992) report, the FDWP produced a series of reports on various aspects
of flexible delivery:
Each of these reports identifies aspects of flexible delivery which must be considered in an integrated approach to implementation. Throughout the reports a common theme is the importance of undertaking strategic planning. Reliable and timely management information systems need to be established to identify conditions at various stages within each area. The following is a summary of the key issues and recommendations.
Appropriate Technologies for Flexible Delivery (FDWP, 1993a)
To a significant extent the development of new technologies, especially in the area of communications, has paved the way for the extension of flexible delivery in vocational education and training: "The successful application of these new technologies to learning has affected and will continue to affect the design, content and delivery of vocational education and training, with its focus on providing easy access to all learners."
Simulator-based experiential learning is a leading example of how technology can enhance the quality and cost-effectiveness of the learning experience. In addition to the application of technology to the learning activity itself, efficiencies are also gained through applying technology to resource, support, administrative and management services.
The efficacy of technology in relation to learning requires both accessibility and acceptance. The widespread adoption of personal computers by households represents significant private investment in and acceptance of a technology relevant to flexible delivery. A survey by the Queensland Distance Education College suggested that 45 per cent of its students had a personal computer at home (FDWP, 1993a).
The extent and rate at which emerging technologies, such as digital television and subscriber television services with enhanced interactive capabilities, are accessed and embraced by clients and providers will provide significant impetus to the rate at which learning materials will need to be adapted.
While technology has provided various media which facilitate flexible delivery, the issues surrounding the implementation of flexible delivery are not solved by the application of technology alone. The management of technology acquisition and application is crucial. Hardware, software and technical service costs are significant, and errors in selection are costly. Providers should pursue collaborative arrangements which are cost-effective, ideally at a national level. This should include consultation with IT experts and industry to ensure that progress is made in achieving inter-operability of learning and workplace technologies.
Physical Facilities for Flexible Delivery (FDWP, 1994)
Flexible delivery has implications for the management of existing education and training facilities and capital works priorities. Flexible delivery requires physical facilities which allow for a range of delivery modes, appropriate support resources and services, and variable communication/attendance patterns and demand. Integral to the physical facility is consideration of the technologies in conjunction with which it operates.
In determining the most appropriate and effective way to meet changing demand, planners should consider the needs of the client first. That is, rather than basing the assessment on the environment required to deliver a module, planners should consider what mode of delivery/enabling environment is most accessible, attractive and conducive to client learning. This should include consideration of supporting resources and services, including those related to both learning and access.
Considering the needs of the client above those of the provider may result in changes to existing accommodation arrangements. The reasons for such changes will need to be communicated to both clients and staff to ensure that those who are disrupted by the process appreciate the benefits of the new arrangements and do not suffer from any feeling of diminished status.
Where an increase in or changing pattern of demand is identified, planners should consider a broad range of alternative solutions before new construction. Through regular monitoring of utilization facility, managers can respond to changing demand patterns as they develop. Shared facilities and resources managed jointly, both within a sector and across sectors, should be considered. Leasing also provides flexibility which many businesses use to their advantage. In Australia there are examples of institutions choosing to lease space in shopping complexes to meet the access imperative of the community.
The adoption of an innovative delivery mode may circumvent the need for the construction of physical facilities. It may also, however, mean that resources need to be directed to developing/enhancing associated areas, such as resources and services, to achieve objectives.
Where planning determines that a new physical facility is warranted, formal processes need to be followed to ensure that the facility is designed and built to provide optimal potential across a range of uses: "Physical facilities must reflect design principles of flexibility and adaptability to cater for the various modes of delivery, client demands and utilisation levels. Buildings need to be adaptable over a long life and to accommodate changes in technologies and education styles and purposes. Facilities for flexible delivery will need to be adaptable to different teaching disciplines as well as to different learning approaches." (FDWP, 1994).
Learning Centres (FDWP, 1993b)
Learning Centres are defined as 'mobile or fixed venues which facilitate teacher, student and resource centred learning' (FDWP, 1993b). These centres are typically common-use facilities which, through the provision of technology, support the delivery of a range of learning programmes to clients. In addition, centres can provide resource and support services.
A learning centre could form the hub of community learning. Clients could access the centre on a needs basis and learning could be pursued at institutions, in workplaces or at home.
Learning centres allow for locational and operational variations which reflect the
principles of flexible delivery. The location, ownership, management and
servicing arrangements can be determined according to the needs of clients and
the provider consortium. Some examples of consortium arrangements include:
Towards New Alliances for Learning in Industry (FDWP, 1993c)
The successful implementation of flexible delivery requires a multilateral approach. Only the adoption of flexible delivery approaches by all sectors will allow the full benefits to flow to clients. Where industry is the provider, economies can be achieved through collaborative arrangements with other providers, including the use of approved curriculum products.
Where learning is pursued in the workplace or associated facilities, industry must provide supportive arrangements which allow employees to participate in flexible learning. Such arrangements also allow industry to plan for the enhancement of skill levels among its workforce, an important consideration in maintaining competitive advantage. Flexible delivery changes the traditional process whereby firms saw their trainees leave the workplace on 'block release' for fixed periods of time, to more mutually convenient arrangements offering further potential productivity gains.
The benefits of flexible delivery and collaborative arrangements between industry and institutions/providers should be promoted. To the extent that TAFE develops expertise in flexible delivery, it should take a lead role in pursuing such arrangements.
While opening training opportunities to more clients and achieving increased participation, such arrangements may also reduce the burden on institutions' capital facilities, allowing funding to be directed to other areas.
The Report identifies the following requirements for a coordinated flexible
learning system:
The emphasis placed on the promotion of flexible delivery/learning among industry is based on the Report's findings that there had been 'limited adoption of flexible delivery approaches to training' among the private and public sector organizations surveyed (FDWP, 1993c).
Subsequent reports on flexible learning have drawn heavily on the work of the Flexible Delivery Working Party, and the FDWP reports remain a valuable set of working documents.
The National Flexible Delivery Taskforce
In 1995, ANTA commissioned a further study into flexible delivery through the National Flexible Delivery Taskforce (NFDT). The approach adopted by the Taskforce focussed on "what users of VET industry products want ... identify(ing) the barriers to meeting the needs of clients" and promoting inter-sectoral cooperation (NFDT, 1996:11-12).
The Report presented much of its analysis in terms of a 'demand vs. supply' side model, with many findings being premised on the need to promote a more 'demand driven' approach. This approach is consistent with the broader ANTA agenda of "opening" the Australian vocational education and training market to competition: "The intent is to support flexible delivery at the point where demand for training is satisfied." ANTA ATR 1997:32).
Recommendations from the Report have provided the basis of the Flexible Delivery Implementation Plan, recently endorsed by the chief executive officers of State VET agencies. The Plan incorporates 10 projects with a total allocation of A$ 2 million. This research/infrastructure effort adds to that being undertaken through ANTA's National Projects programme (see Projects supporting Flexible Learning and Systems supporting Flexible Learning).
In pursuing this cooperative pilot project/research approach, ANTA is seeking to effect a more pervasive, system-wide move toward flexible delivery with the objective that "in 1998, the challenge will be to move from research and piloting of Flexible Delivery to mainstream application of the principle at provider level." (ANTA 1997).
The following summary of 1997 Implementation Plan projects has been provided
by ANTA: (ANTA, 1997).
3.2 "Opening" the training market
As identified in the Introduction, TAFE has traditionally been the major provider of vocational education and training in Australia. According to ANTA, moves to open the vocational education and training market to competition will, among other things, create an environment conducive to the propagation of flexible learning/delivery systems. That is, effective flexible delivery is seen as a product of competition and, through opening up the system to competition, the impetus to better meet client needs will encourage providers to offer training in more flexible modes.
According to ANTA, moves to a competitive training market will bring an increase in the number of private providers entering the market to deliver VET using cost-efficient technologies and practices, including flexible learning. Many of ANTA's initiatives are underpinned by moves to open the vocational education and training market to competition.
For the TAFE sector, the move toward a more open vocational education and training market creates uncertainty. Reliant on the Government for the vast majority of its funding, the TAFE sector faces an erosion of its funding at a time when private providers are emerging to take up the more profitable segments of the training market, including the fields of business and computer studies. Some issues relating to funding are considered in the following section.
3.3 Funding and flexible learning
Like many countries, Australia currently uses a funding formula approach to allocate recurrent funding to the vocational education and training sector. This approach promotes competition to the extent that TAFE colleges receive funds approximately proportionate to the number of students they attract. However, the system in Australia is based on student contact hours as the common unit for funding purposes. Funding based on student contact hours has not encouraged improvements in delivery efficiency and, as long as student contact hours remain the unit for funding purposes, may discourage the pursuit of flexible learning systems.
As an interim step, the system of funding VET has been modified to encourage
development of flexible learning/delivery in three major ways:
More substantively, a new funding model is needed. Funding models appropriate to flexible learning systems need to both promote the adoption of and accommodate the requirements of flexible learning systems. As noted by the NFDT, there is a need to redevelop funding models to make them consistent with flexible learning: "the basic unit used to support resource allocation models and profiles should be changed from student contact hours to a measure that is expressed in terms of skill outputs offered [and] not hours equivalents; is aligned with competencies; and requires providers to align their training products and services with the basic unit." (NFDT, 1996: 24). The Report further recommended that the work of the ANTA Unit Cost Working Party should include the development of a model which supports a more flexible approach to learning.(4)
The formulation of more appropriate funding models has been recognised by ANTA as a co-requisite to achieving a more open training market. In conjunction with the strategy of opening the training market, funding models which promote and accommodate competition are being developed. Under the auspices of ANTA, a number of groups are undertaking development work on new performance indicators and funding models.
As identified by the NFDT, ANTA's Unit Cost Working Party is continuing work on appropriate funding and performance models, including work undertaken for the 1997 Flexible Delivery Implementation Plan project Resources Allocation Model. ANTA's Performance Review Committee is also pursuing the issue of funding and performance indicators. Key performance measures previously developed on the basis of contact hours are being re-developed in the context of a more flexible and competitive system.
The strategy of opening the training market implies significant reform of the system of funding. Although no agreement has been reached on the final form for a new national funding model, a number of options are emerging from the current debate in Australia.(5)
Allocative funding (government to provider) could be modified to use performance indicators which are not contact-hour based. Work in this area has focussed on developing 'outcome measures' intended to provide an indication of the extent to which education and training objectives are satisfied. Suggested examples include measures of employability and productivity. It is generally conceded, however, that 'outcome measures' would need to be considered in the context of a suite of measures, including traditional input (eg. funding) and output (eg. graduates) measures.
Competitive tendering is a funding system consistent with the strategy to increase competition. The operation of such a system could vary according to a number of features. Under one proposal, the Government (or its agency) would receive information on demand for training and tender for its provision; funding would be awarded to the most cost-efficient providers. Such a system would obviously need to incorporate standards to ensure that cost efficiency was not achieved at the expense of quality.
In recognition of the role of industry, a variation might see tendering agency responsibility conferred to an industry body. The industry body would receive advice from its member firms on training demand and tender for its provision. Proponents of this approach claim that industry is in the best position to determine the skills and quantities of labour it requires, and therefore the skill level and quantum of training required by its sector.
A problem common to most competitive tendering systems is the substantial administrative cost associated with the level of management required to match demand and provision of training.
An 'entitlements' or voucher system would provide for a 'user buys' system. Government-issued vouchers would be redeemable for units of training, allowing student and industry clients to manage their own education and training. The provider then receives funding proportionate to the number of students, according to a pre-determined cost schedule. According to proponents of this option, empowering clients would make the system more responsive to client needs and reduce the administrative burden of reconciling demand with provision. Indeed, this system has been advocated by Dr. Vince Fitzgerald in previous work conducted for ANTA and conceivably may feature in the report he is currently preparing for ANTA (Dwyer, M. 1994:5).
An alternative funding system may also incorporate elements taken from a number of proposals, according to their respective efficacy in various segments of the training market.
For the Australian system to make significant progress on the question of
funding, a number of key issues need to be addressed, including:
If costing measures are not related to specific methods of delivery, then it is not possible to determine the cost-relativities of different delivery strategies. The continuation of this situation would inhibit identification of efficient delivery strategies/providers and moves to a competitive tendering system. The move to a competitive tendering system of funding provides many challenges for the ANTA Unit Cost Working Party. The extent to which flexible learning is adopted in the Australian VET system will largely depend on the timely and successful implementation of a more appropriate funding system.
3.4 Projects supporting flexible learning
Under its National Projects programme, ANTA has supported pilot projects on flexible learning / delivery and related research work. ANTA identifies this support as a key initiative in promoting flexible delivery/learning. Under its 1995 National Projects programme, there were 28 flexible delivery pilot projects which were undertaken by State agencies. The 1997 programme allocated funding for 3 National projects and 35 State and Territory projects.
The 1997 National projects were:
The titles of the State and Territory projects are provided in Box 1.
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1. Documentation of Canberra Institute of Technology and ACT VET system in implementing online information and delivery projects. 2. On-line delivery with other VET providers. 3. Sydney Institute of Technology flexible learning initiative. 4. Rapid document conversion to the World Wide Web. 5. Audiographics documentation project. 6. Sydney Institute of Technology information technology teacher peer-to-peer support. 7. Cable TV. 8. Access to the Internet - Equity issues. 9. Environmental studies statement of attainment. 10. Sydney Institute of Technology information technology flexible learning initiative. 11. Online delivery of VET modules to remote Northern Territory clients. 12. Use of flexible delivery in VET. 13. Assisting remote, rural school-leavers achieve job readiness via videolink. 14. The readiness of the VET client for flexible learning through learning technologies and online delivery. 15. VET on the Internet: A resource guide for teachers and students. 16. Research into the effectiveness of online technologies as a learning resource for the workplace. 17. Change management strategies for organizations moving to online delivery - 03. 18. Teaching and learning styles that facilitate online learning. 19. Online delivery platform. 20. Change management strategies for organizations moving to online delivery - 07. 21. Teaching and learning styles that facilitate online teaching. 22. Guidelines for online materials development projects. 23. Online access to library and information services and the skills required by users to effectively use the ‘digital library'. 24. Development of collaborative ventures in online delivery. 25. Content and delivery methods for teacher training in the use of online technologies. 26. New learning technologies initiatives in the adult and community education sector. 27. Elements of successful marketing in the online training environment. 28. Support tools for decision-making in online training delivery. 29. Workplace learning and technology. 30. Research and development on how regional, rural and remote external learners can best use the services provided by regional college learning resource centres. 31. Learning materials development, delivery and transfer to the Internet via an Intranet platform. 32. The development of a methodology for the delivery of distance learning material and provision of industry skills assessment for the Western Australian exploration drilling industry. 33. Academic support for online education and training programmes for access by international clients. 34. An online service for isolated participants in computer managed learning (CML) via the Internet. 35. Investigate the use of online technology for delivery of training to remote areas. |
In making available funds to promote pilot projects, the development of
supporting systems and associated research, ANTA has used a devolved
approach to achieving system-wide collaboration on flexible learning initiatives.
The devolved approach of funding pilot projects which are managed by State
agencies should address some of the concerns of the TAFE sector over moves
toward an open market by:
In addition, then, to the direct benefits provided by support for TAFE in its development of flexible learning systems, the increased confidence which should accompany the acquisition and sharing of expertise across the system may serve to reduce the level of anxiety apparent in the TAFE sector. This anxiety is a normal feature of any reform process and may be due to perceptions of competition as a threat to TAFE's position in the vocational education and training market. Given the agenda for reform and the moves to a competitive training market, the challenge for TAFE is to adopt flexible learning systems which will enable it to be a competitive provider.
3.5 Systems supporting flexible learning
Education Network Australia
Education Network Australia (EdNA) was established in 1995 by the Federal Government to provide a forum on information technology for all sectors of the Australian education and training system. Services provided by EdNA include the management of a directory on educational resources and the support of advisory groups representing individual sectors. Sectoral advisory groups provide channels for both the contribution and distribution of information. The system-wide collaboration facilitated by EdNA allows institutions to enjoy cost-benefits and inter-connectivity.
The establishment of an EdNA/VET Working Group was recommended to manage system-wide acquisition and application of technology relevant to flexible learning in the vocational education and training sector. (NFDT, 1996:23).
The EdNA/VET Advisory Group advises both EdNA and ANTA on matters relating to flexible learning technologies. The Group is also managing a number of projects funded under the Flexible Delivery Implementation Plan.
Open Learning Information and Materials Clearing House ( OLIMCH )
Another key organization supporting the national implementation of flexible learning systems is the South Australian Department of TAFE. This account is based on a study prepared by Di Booker, Manager, Open Learning Information and Materials Clearing House (Booker, 1995).
The Open Learning Information and Materials Clearing House (OLIMCH) acts as
a central depository and information service on open learning course materials.
Its functions include:
In performing these functions OLIMCH contributes to system efficiency by providing authoritative advice on the availability of resource materials and developments in the field. The database, OLEARN, can be accessed at no charge within its home State, under reciprocal arrangements with other States, or as a subscription service, either online or as a disc product.
Client feedback indicates that OLIMCH provides a valuable support service for providers seeking materials or methods to assist in implementing flexible learning systems.
The outcomes of the OLICMH service can be identified as:
OLIMCH sees its future in enhancing services through:
A flexible learning materials service, like OLIMCH, which offers professional advice and quality products, and which is easily accessed, offers significant cost and time efficiencies to providers planning flexible learning systems.
Other innovations supporting flexible learning
In many respects the move to flexible learning systems is also supported by a range of discrete reforms and innovations. During the 1990s the Australian VET system has pursued many complementary initiatives which have served to facilitate the broader strategic move to flexible learning.
Some specific innovations which have enhanced conditions for flexible learning
include:
These innovations have been implemented to varying degrees. In some cases, considerable work remains to be done before the full benefits of these reforms can be enjoyed. In November 1996 VET Ministers endorsed the National Training Framework (NTF). The NTF is designed to simplify national regulatory arrangements and includes measures to pursue system reforms.
3.6 Industry involvement
The Australian VET system has formalized the role of industry in the vocational education and training system through the establishment of Industry Training Advisory Bodies (ITABs). ITABs are recognized system participants and receive Federal Government funding to research and formulate training plans in coordination with ANTA and State training agencies.
In addition to this advisory role, the increasing responsibility of industry to provide vocational education and training raises the issue of recognition and accreditation. In a number of cases, industry has sought the expertise of the public and/or private providers to achieve cost-effective, quality flexible learning systems. Once in-house expertise has been developed, industry providers can apply for accreditation from the relevant State training authority. The accreditation process varies from State to State; the requirements of some States appear onerous and may act to discourage firms from seeking accreditation.
The role of industry in informing the development of training products has been extended to provide for direct development of national training products under the Training Packages initiative. As a key feature of the NTF, Training Packages will allow industry to customize training. Training Packages will focus on qualifications gained through apprenticeships and traineeships, and will replace the declaration of trades in States and Territories.
Each Training Package will include a set of core elements, comprising competency standards, national qualifications and assessment guidelines applicable across an industry or sectors. Training Packages may also include a range of additional material such as learning strategy, assessment materials and professional development materials. The three core elements of Training Packages will be subject to endorsement by the Australian National Training Framework Committee (NTFC). Additional resources will be noted by the NTFC and recorded as features of the Training Package.
The NTFC is a business-led committee chaired by the Chief Executive of the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and includes representatives from employer and employee bodies, Federal, State and Territory governments. In addition to its endorsement responsibilities, the NTFC will provide a range of advisory functions on Training Packages, recognition, quality and other aspects of the National Training Framework.
Training Packages are intended to allow registered training organizations the opportunity to develop flexible training programmes to meet enterprise, regional or individual training needs, while maintaining the integrity of a national qualification (ANTA, 1997b).
3.7 Adoption of flexible learning by VET system
As indicated in Section 6, a number of pilot projects and related research activities have been undertaken to support the adoption of flexible learning systems. Many case studies documenting recent experiences from the implementation of flexible delivery have been published.
All case studies recognized that flexible learning marked a vastly different approach to traditional methods of learning and delivery. In coming to terms with the multitude of elements necessary for a holistic approach to flexible learning, many found (and subsequently recommended) a gradual transition to flexible learning/delivery. This approach allowed providers to work through the issues concerning the creation of a flexible learning system without causing major disruptions to their continuing education and training commitments. As many training providers needed to maintain full education and training services during pilot/implementation periods, a gradual approach to the introduction of flexible learning appeared to be the only realistic option.
A number of studies suggested that an important element for successful implementation was the induction of students and staff into the system of flexible learning. Flexible learning requires a different set of expectations and skills on the part of both students and teachers. The self-directed nature of flexible learning requires that students recognize the learning choices available and appreciate their responsibility in self-directed learning. Equally, teachers need to recognize the expanded role which facilitating flexible learning requires, including a range of supporting responsibilities and maintaining communication with students beyond traditional contact hours.
While the proliferation of reports on flexible learning/delivery over the 1990s is consistent with statements identifying flexible learning as a major priority for Australia's VET system, indicators of the extent of adoption are comparatively scarce. While case studies provide examples of the innovations being pursued in the VET sector, system-wide indicators are only beginning to emerge.
For the 1994, 1995 and 1996 national VET system data collections, an indicator on 'delivery strategy' has been included. The enumeration of data for this indicator requires respondent State agencies to identify module enrolments by delivery strategy. National Centre for Vocational Education and Research data on module enrolments by delivery strategy indicate that over the period 1994 to 1996, the proportion of units exclusively delivered in 'traditional' modes has declined from about 90 per cent to 80 per cent of total module enrolments (NCVER 1997). (6)
While the adoption of flexible learning/delivery has been promoted at national level, progress depends on the degree to which State training agencies pursue the agenda. The extent and rate of adoption of flexible learning differs across State VET systems, and is indeed largely at the discretion of the responsible State VET agencies. As noted in the Introduction, in Australia VET is administered by State agencies, but the sector relies on significant Federal Government funding. As ANTA is unable to implement national system changes unilaterally, it seeks to promote the cooperation of State agencies on a range of reforms. Underpinning this cooperation is the reliance of the State agencies on Federal funding.
Summarized below are some conditions which should ideally exist to allow for effective implementation of flexible learning and delivery.
Flexible delivery requires:
These 'ideal' conditions may be pursued through strategies which:
The main benefits of flexible learning systems, as summarized by Hinchcliffe and
Cunningham (1992), include: