WPC l&Ӟon ݳ\yL*cEzcl##/DI: Ox{bi7[5g0> w^ߠ?R\ɴ%ܖX.*"Fނ8jb3 ؐfZ Գ[9h:;<>6@%Cf-C B/C ALC 0@\C D39F D;+lF AMFF 0DG:G AH AM3II 0JFJ D/J BJ 0J 0K B 7@L AMwL 0:KL C M$)M`MP AOQ8Q 04T"U AV AW 0MX A*YeY8[P\ B*a` 0Y` 0V`UGJa 0[a 0\Rd 0\f 07 i 07Yk 0k 0,n 0Lo 0qU.hrWrsu 0\"ve ~x 0x 0Rdy 0LyE z 0z 0{|}  A&U<π &/@o C,5 0\a 0D D3 B4 AKQ D3 B 7ψ C f;a= C@Q DC B-Ԋ BUHafUJz Aċ D3m 0 | A AŎ An i^ Bu i] i` C O Cif i i. D 3: i\m i7ɒ i ia iX ib? C i~ iP9 iJ i!ӕ i; i_/ i= i˖ A A C7< C7s 0 0ę AU<] 05g A AUJR A AE 0 D? B*ɠ B* BG C"d C$ C Cġ Aޡ A A0 A٣ A C+ D5E D3z B* D3ץ CK AU A i iƧ iV iX; i i5 iK i#2 iXU iD im iN^ iM i, iH% i!m iY ii i8P i[ A A A5 AޮUH Aϯ Ax A! Aʱ As A Aų An A A Ai A A Ad A A A_ A A AZ A A 05VU AUgHT A AE A A A@o. 0oU0 0%faUHUHFfaUJf  UJ(arUH 0 T' 1m{(8`{Y 1su 0 1s+P& A 0d 0c 0d\ m 0d 0c; 0c 0 0  U<Taf-a/fCaEfYa[[foaq fa#!NUHUHUHfffffffffUHUH)FooUJPf%a'UH;UJfaUHUJ+fuawUHUJUHfeagUH{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{ 0\ 0<6X9`+,Courier 10cpiLegalX($UKUS.,TRW\6&A4 (Portrait)W\6&A4 (Portrait)6&A46&A4T  _XXXX_%-%X_X  $vvzX$m:\po30win\wpwin\uktemplt\a4\a4e.wpt  H*UKUS.,  /XN+XXX/%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$  _A X) xdEA  i  )".zTjD:\Public\english\60empfor\polform\download\pub12.w61zD:\Public\english\60empfor\polform\download\pub12.w61/   jklDmnDopDqrtu;%"dd("3$ I&mage <=8C HKKKKd3|xt"37=EMU]ek1.(a)(i)(1)(a)(i)1)a)! !dHJ/ + AZ"Univers (W1)   I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    FiftypercentofBosnianrefugeesreturningfromItalyarewomenwithchildrenwhosehusbandsremained  behind(personalcommunication,diBlassi).....'dxd 'dxd  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Muslimwasonlyintroducedasanethniccategoryinthecensusin1960.Priortothat,BosniansofMuslim  ethnicitycouldonlychoosetheidentityofYugoslav(Schopflin,1993:192).jmj D4Heading EHeading E for A4 documents_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  f/#/_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  f!;% M G)UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$  _A X) xdTEA!!G)"  i  /0 AZ0Univers (W1) Regular ((A(  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,PriceandRossiLonghi.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Zecevic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Omeragic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Albania,Austria,Belgium,Bulgaria,CzechRepublic,Denmark,Finland,France,Germany,Greece,Hungary,  Italy,Ireland,Liechtenstein,Luxembourg,Netherlands,Norway,Poland,Portugal,SlovakRepublic,Slovenia,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Turkey,UnitedKingdom. u I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    CommentstothiseffectweremadeduringaconferenceonrepatriationofBosnianrefugeesintheUnited  Kingdom.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Anumberoforganizationsrepresentingtheinterestsofdisplacedpersonshavearisen,somefosteredbythe  OfficeoftheHighRepresentative,representingspecificareassuchastheDobojDisplacedPersonsAssociation,theKljucDisplacedPersonsAssociation,andtheJajceDisplacedPersonsOrganization,whichtogetherwithothergroupsformtheCoalitionforReturn.ThereareothergroupsassociatedwiththeUnionofDisplacedPersonswhichhavebeeninitiatedindigenously.  d"$&OLE Box<<=8C(43$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$   'dxd'dxd&"'$A% CLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5($$   1  Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5"y  <<= 8C+",-A<< BLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5(P$ Table  1  ..' dxd drJ/ 2AppendixAppendix style for A4 documentsE%Y%%_%YE%E%Y  *ListLists separated by numbers, letters, bullets 33 333+0 d d d("3#A<< C( $ Figure  1   d  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    In1992,theUNHCRaskedmemberStatestoacceptBosnianrefugees,particularlyconcentrationcampvictims  andmedicalevacuees,outsideofregularGenevaConventionmodalities,underaregimereferredtoastemporaryprotection.SomecountriessubsequentlyregularizedthelegalstatusoftheBosnians,butothersremaininlegallimbo,uncertainwhethertheywillbeforcedtoreturn.TheUniversityofSussexiscurrentlyconductingastudyontemporaryprotectionintheEuropeanUnionandhostcountryplansforassistedreturn. V I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Sincetheseareofficialdata,theymayoverstatetheextentofaccesstowatersupplyinbothareas.c"f#C<<C . I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    YugoslaviacalculatednationalaccountsusingtheMarxistmethodinwhichgrosssocialproductisequaltonet  materialproductpluscapitalconsumption.Itdoesnotincludenonproductiveservicessuchaseducation,health,defence,professionalservicesandpublicadministration(EIU,1991:9).X*$Heading A for A4 document      %_%%_%Yg %%_f      %_%%_%Yg %%_f  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,VladicKunosic.("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK(U @$_= %_%y! z_X!/#/0  0$"$"_= %_%y! z_X!("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK [ I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    TheWorldBankappearstohaveundertakenitsowncalculationsusingGDPratherthanGSPforitspurposes.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Rapa.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    AccordingtowomeninBosnia,therehasbeenanincreaseindivorceratestiedto,amongotherfactors,long  termfamilyseparation.Ashusbandsandwiveshaveseparatelydefinednewrolesforthemselves,eitherinBosniaoranothercountry,neithermaybepreparedtomakesacrificestobetogether(personalcommunication,Hasanbegovic).Somewomenhavealsoexpressedadesirenottoreunitewithpartnerswhohadpreviouslybeenabusive(personalcommunication,McHugh).ItwasalsonotedthattheseappearstobeariseindivorcesamongcouplesinmixedmarriagesinMostar,evidencedbyincreasedrequestsforlegalassistance(personalcommunication,Hasanbegovic).Legaladvicecentresforwomenarespringinguptoassistwomenwiththemodalitiesofdivorce.&0 d d($  0  (U @]$_=  _y! z_X!/#/0  _=  _y! z_X!(/O  Z 2CG Times (W1) Regular(32c$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$  (43$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$  (43$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$  (B,2$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$  v    0  ($  0  (B,2;$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$      0  (U@H$= &&y! z_X!= &&y! z_X!(r2B$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$  O%ҿ%%_%ʨOI%O%ҿ(' k$/#/ 33 X /#/ 33.xAp`Univers M H*UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$  _A X) xdEA  i  )")"H)"  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Rapa.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Personalcommunication,Purisevic.(42$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$   (@4@ $_= %_%y! z_X!0  0$"$"0_$"$"_= %_%y! z_X!(W$    (WV $   (mjOD$_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  f/#/_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  fj*4Heading AHeading A for A4 documents      %_%%_%Yg %%_f      %_%%_%Yg %%_f  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Beslija.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Emerson.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Sabitovic.("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK),h  Z $CG Times (W1)   I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Emerson.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Personalcommunication,Kojcid. % I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    4    Personalcommunication,OmeragicandVlajicKunosic.Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5(Chainlinkdd(43$ !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$  ($$   1  hhhh'dxd d"jlA X C1k1k'dxd3+0 d d ddd  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Kadiric.TABLE C<*&Diagonal Crosshatchddrrrr7Hairlinedxd)Hairline d d/ + AZ0Univers (W1) RegularTABLE E)   Z 2CG Times (W1) Regular("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK~~~~'dxd~n4Body textBody text style for A4 1col documentv$vvzX$   ` ////v _&,&%_%-&,&&_&,  ("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK B~ B 4 F>     d# ~~IAS8~~PHGdd22dd2d# 1k1k1k1k1k1klllaY< B$BBBB'dxd BPH<# 4-%# rjG<ddddddB QIC€d€d#~~4F>22  ~ ~ F>22d ~~ ^V',dd dd  dd B4>6'0# 4<4'0 # 4# 4/'   KCC8 ~~1)  # ("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK3Gradient 1dd 3Gradient 2dd (l*\NM$_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  f  _/#/_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  f(@H@փ$_= %_%y! z_X!0  0$"$"0_$"$"0@_ $" $"_= %_%y! z_X!("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK),h  Z $CG Times (W1) jw*\=4Heading BHeading B for A4 documents    %_%%_%Y %%_f  j   %_%%_%Y %%_f("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK)   Z 2CG Times (W1) Regular("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK(P.%$ 33 v 2  0  .3   33 3 ShadowdZd&p d Pd&p Pd dCTriple 1+| d d d Meshdd  Wavesdd60# 4C;8 " B44:2  # 4 B4IA B~ B QIK 4dd   ~~~( c  ~~~KCC$ ("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK/Ki AZ0Univers (W1) Regular("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKKji'\4Heading CHeading C for A4 documents_ԥ%_%Y+P_ԥ  f  \^R^_ԥ%_%Y+P_ԥ  f("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regular("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKKWPC'QQ9* Q__}  (<3$ 332(  a  )3  0 v 33WPC'QQ9* Q__}) `CG Times(6M6N$ 33$ bvvz$ b2(   )3  0  33$ bvvz$  Fc'UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$  _? X' dE?TABLE D/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regular/Ki AZ0Univers (W1) Regular2  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Jabucar.\TABLE B)   Z 2CG Times (W1) Regular\  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Janssen.)   Z 2CG Times (W1) RegularTABLE F/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regular({$0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#2  a  )3  0p(#(#  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Jukic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Kojicid.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Emerson.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Personalcommunication,Emerson. J I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    ParttimestudentsarechargedafeeofDM500peryear(personalcommunication,Jabucar).&&637=CIQYag1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Jabucar.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Personalcommunication,Jukic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    5    Personalcommunication,Omeragic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,JanssenandOmeragic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Emerson.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Hadzic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Therewasinsufficienttimeinthisstudytoexploreindepththegenderedimpactsofdisabilityandillnessat  thehouseholdlevelbutisasubjectthatwarrantsfurtherattention.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    4    Personalcommunication,Omeragic.#37=CIOW_eI.A.1.a.(1)(a)i)a)  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    6    Personalcommunication,Omeragic.(xb$0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#2(  0  )3  0 (# (#C37;CO_s11.01.0.01.0.0.01.0.0.0.01.0.0.0.0.01.0.0.0.0.0.01.0.0.0.0.0.0.0  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    7    Personalcommunication,Uiselica.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Omeragic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Omeragic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    3    Personalcommunication,Janssen.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    4    InRwanda,theterm revengefertilitywascoinedbyadoctortodescribethe ethniccompetitiontoprocreate  (Economist,Feb.1997:63).  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    5    Personalcommunication,Zecievic. ! I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    _Personalcommunication,Emerson. F I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    _Personalcommunication,_Hasanbegovic_.Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5("3$&OLE 2.0 Box <=8C HKKKK(<$2(  a  )3  0  (;j6$2(   )3  0  (<w$2(  0  )3  0  U(<׼$2(  a  )3  0  (;9$2(   )3  0  (;3$2  0  .3  0  (l$0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#2(  a  )3  0h(#(#($0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#2  0  )3  0(#(#  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,Forster.LD  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,BaksicMuftic.Itshouldbestressedthatthisprojectandassociatedtrainingisfor  Muslimwomenonlyandisbasedonsolidarityaroundasharedethnicidentity.B),h  Z $CG Times (W1)  J I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    ThetermBosniac(orBosniak)referstoSlavspeakingMuslims(BellFialkoff,1996:123).TABLE ATABLE LTABLE LTABLE MTABLE GpTable TopTABLE HHP LaserJet 4 Plus,LL,0/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regular/Ki AZ0Univers (W1) Regular/Ki AZ0Univers (W1) Regular/Ki AZ0Univers (W1) Regular +  1x 0Albertus (W1) Medium  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    Personalcommunication,MiroslavandBogmovic.  I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    2    Personalcommunication,Miroslav.(/O  Z 2CG Times (W1) Regular F I$UKUS.,  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+$vvzX$v    1    _Personalcommunication,_Hasanbegovic_.TABLE J/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regular)   Z 2CG Times (W1) Regular\TABLE K/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regular)   Z 2CG Times (W1) RegularTABLE L/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regular)   Z 2CG Times (W1) Regular/Ki AZ0Univers (W1) Regular\TABLE I/ + AZ0Univers (W1) Regularjl*\M4Heading DHeading D for A4 documents_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  f  _/#/_&X&%_%Y&p$&&_&X  fj*L4QuotationQuotation in all documents/#/ 33/#/ 33 !UKUS.,TRX6&A4 (Portrait)3'6&A43'T  _XN+XXX_%ʨ%X_XN+  $vvzX$  _C "" C = rPrrr ynv*vvzvvz*   ` //v X_&ʨ%%_%ʨ&ʨ%%_&ʨ   &)"ILOActionProgrammeonSkillsand  yy!)"EntrepreneurshipTrainingforCountriesII,)"EmergingfromArmedConflictb   #)"PostconflictBosniaandHerzegovina:    )"Integratingwomensspecialsituationand  QQ)"genderperspectivesinskillstrainingandMM))"employmentpromotionprogrammes<)"MarthaWalsh w#   /,$!TrainingPoliciesandSystemsBranch33?)"June1997 /,  InternationalLabourOffice,Geneva. j2v/ = &d) %%&ʨXX %&d)  #XN+XXX'##&ʨ%XXN+F# P!%&ʨ   #&ʨ%! P# %&ʨCopyrightInternationalLabourOrganization1997  PublicationsoftheInternationalLabourOfficeenjoycopyrightunderProtocol2oftheUniversalCopyrightConvention.Nevertheless,shortexcerptsfromthemmaybereproducedwithoutauthorization,onconditionthatthesourceisindicated.Forrightsorreproduction,ortranslation,applicationshouldbemadetotheILOPublicationsBureau(RightsandPermissions),InternationalLabourOffice,CH-1211Geneva22,Switzerland.TheInternationalLabourOfficewelcomessuchapplications.Libraries,institutionsandotherusersregisteredintheUnitedKingdomwiththeCopyrightLicensingAgency,90TottenhamCourtroad,LondonW1P9HE(Fax:+441714363986),intheUnitedStateswiththeCopyrightClearance_Center_,222RosewoodDrive,_Danvers_,MA01923(Fax:+15087504470),orinothercountrieswithassociatedReproductionRightsOrganizations,maymakephotocopiesinaccordancewiththelicencesissuedtothemforthispurpose.A X) xdAEvY A Zf ISBN9221106780   i   ] Firstpublished1997   i    i   ] A X) xdAEv7 A 8D# ThedesignationsemployedinILOpublications,whichareinconformitywithUnitedNationspractice,andthepresentationofmaterialthereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheInternationalLabourOfficeconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,areaorterritoryorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiers.Theresponsibilityforopinionsexpressedinsignedarticles,studiesandothercontributionsrestssolelywiththeirauthors,andpublicationdoesnotconstituteanendorsementbytheInternationalLabourOfficeoftheopinionsexpressedinthem.ReferencetonamesoffirmsandcommercialproductsandprocessesdoesnotimplytheirendorsementbytheInternationalLabourOffice,andanyfailuretomentionaparticular_firm,commercial_Ԁproductorprocessisnotasignofdisapproval.ILOpublicationscanbeobtainedthroughmajorbooksellersorILOlocalofficesinmanycountries,ordirectfromILOPublications,InternationalLabourOffice,CH-1211Geneva22,Switzerland.Cataloguesorlistsofnewpublicationsareavailablefreeofchargefromtheaboveaddress.#&ʨ% # %&ʨԀ#&ʨ% #XN+X%&ʨ L*X'2 #&ʨ%XXN+# +"(3 Z      v&ҿ%%&ʨq%&ҿf    PrefaceZD       vHeq&ʨ%Hef    Thisdocument,preparedbyMarthaWalshthroughBRIDGE"partoftheInstituteof / DevelopmentStudiesatSussex"isaninputtotheILOActionProgrammeonSkillsand   EntrepreneurshipTrainingforCountriesEmergingfromArmedConflict.This_multidisciplinary_andinterdepartmentalprogramme,underimplementationduringthe199697biennium,isgearedto,interalia,makingpolicyproposals,elaboratingguidelinesfornationalandinternationalcapacitybuilding,producingtrainingmaterials,adatabaseandacompendiumofmajortrainingandemploymentrelatedinitiativesinconflictaffectedcountries.Theprogrammehasundertakenseveralcountrylevelresearchactivitiestogeneraterelevantdataandinsightstounderpinpreparationoftheabovementionedoutputs.Ms.Walshsstudyisoneexample.  Thisreportonthestudyexaminesthe_gendered_Ԁconsequencesofwar.Theyincludegenderrolechangesemanatingfromexigenciesoftheconflictaffectedcontext;weakenedcommunitystructures,cohesionandtrustandtheirimpactonwomenscopingstrategiesandvulnerabilityafterwar;increaseinnumbersandvulnerabilityoffemaleheadedhouseholds;andgreaterdifferencesbetweenmenandwomenintheiropportunitiesinthepostwarlabourmarketincludinggreaterdiscriminationagainstwomenandtheirlimitedrepresentationindecisionmakingbodies.Ontheotherhandmenappeartoreceivelimitedfocusintheprogrammessetuptotacklethewarrelatedpsychologicaltraumasofthepopulation.Thiscouldhaveadverseeffectsonwomenintermsofthehighlevelofmaleviolenceagainsttheminpostwarhouseholds.Thereportalsoshowsthatprewardifferencesintheconditionsofthediversegroupsofwomeninfluencetheimpactofwaronthem.Apartfromgender,othercausesofvulnerabilityidentifiedinpostconflictBosniaandHerzegovinaareethnicity,disability,ageandsocialclasswhichallhavetobetackledinthetechnicalassistanceprojectsimplementedforthevulnerableinthepostwarsociety.  Thestudyfinds,fromareviewofsomeoftheongoingpostwarprojectsexecutedbythedifferentinternationalagenciesand_NGOs_,thattheydonotcontributesubstantiallytoempoweringwomenthroughenhancingtheirabsorptioninemergingproductiveopportunitiesinthelabourmarket.Onthewhole,theydonottargetwomensstrategicneeds.Whilemanywomensassociationscurrentlyexistinthecountrywhichcanmakeacontributiontoimprovewomenspostwarsituation,extentoftheircontributioniscurrentlylimitedsincetheydonot engageinthepublicarena.TheonlyexceptionappearstobetheBosnianWomensInitiative.  Thereportmakesanumberofproposalsregardingpolicyandprogrammetoguidefutureaction.7)"EugeniaDateBah,//;)"Coordinator,*)"ActionProgrammeonSkillsand[[+)"Entrepreneurship@%"Trainingfor!)"CountriesEmergingfromArmedConflict,#)"TrainingPoliciesandSystemsBranch,<)"ILO,Geneva.  *k%*    Z      v&ҿ%%&ʨq%&ҿf    ContentsZ" "      vHeq&ʨ%Hef  , j  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz'/  LH#  Preface !!E)".iiiLH#T$݌  Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz't   LH%  jkjContentsjkj jkj!!G)".vLHN&&݌̌&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  jjLH %&ʨ' z_vvz'* >   LH'  jkj Abbreviations {!{!E)".` ` viiLH%%݌ t  Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  D] %&ʨ' z_vvz'/m >   D]'0    Glossary#{!{!E)".B B )")"#viiD]'G(݌ m  Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz'# 7   LH)  Executivesummary !!F)". ixLH))݌ #  Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz' 6 J  LHg*  1.  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Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  D] %&ʨ' z_vvz'/a-(2-(  D]Q0    6.2. j ConsiderationsforILOprojectsinBosnia a-("  j andareasforfurtherresearch#!!F)".JJ2)")"#36D]Q"R݌ +.)#  &ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz'/>+.R*  LHtS  Annotatedbibliography !!F)".  #39LHtSS݌ />+$ Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz'  LHT  Additionalreferences !!F)".v v "42LHT;U݌   &ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz'EY  LHV  Annex1 !!F)".43LHVV݌ E Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  D] %&ʨ' z_vvz'/>l  D]YW0    Interviews#!!F)". )")"#43D]YWW݌ > Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz' Q e  LHX  Annex2 !!F)".45LHXY݌  Q Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  D] %&ʨ' z_vvz'/ J   D]Y0    Relevantinstitutionsandorganizations#!!F)".7)")"#45D]Y\Z݌  J Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  LH %&ʨ' z_vvz'    LHR[  Annex3 !!F)".49LHR[[݌   Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  D] %&ʨ' z_vvz'/ m   D]\0    Termsofreference#!!F)".  ")")"#49D]\]݌   Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  D] %&ʨ' z_vvz'/ f   D]]0    ILOActionProgrammeonSkillsandEntrepreneurship   TrainingforCountriesEmergingfromArmedConflict#!!F)".C)")"#50D]]]^݌ _  Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  D] %&ʨ' z_vvz'/X )   D]_0    jqjWorkingPapers#!!F)".6 6 )")"#50D]Gaa݌ X  Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  jqj #jD]_`݌ )")" Ќ&ʨ% 'vvzz_'  )")"H)"  "  _ ynvv*vvzvvz*   ` ////v &ʨ%%&ʨ&ʨ%%&ʨ   Z      v&ҿ%%&ʨq%&ҿf    AbbreviationsZc c      vHeq&ʨ%Hef  0vvi vvz0BIH   i  BosniaandHerzegovina / BWI i  BosnianWomensInitiative   CEDAW i  ConventionfortheEliminationofallformsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen  DM   i  Deutschmark f  ECHO i  EuropeanCommunityHumanitarianOrganization B  EIU   i  EconomistIntelligenceUnit  { ETF i  EmploymentandTrainingFoundation  W FHH i  Female-HeadedHousehold  3 GDP i  GrossDomesticProduct    GSP i  GrossSocialProduct   IDP   i  InternallyDisplacedPerson j  IFI   i  InternationalFinancialInstitution F  IFOR i  InternationalPeacekeepingForce "  ILO   i  InternationalLabourOffice [  INGO i  InternationalNonGovernmentalOrganization 7 IRC   i  InternationalRescueCommittee  LDI   i  LocalDevelopmentInitiatives  LEDA i  LocalEconomicDevelopmentArea n LNGO i  LocalNonGovernmentalOrganization J MDC i  MunicipalDevelopmentCommittees & NGO i  NonGovernmentalOrganization _ OHR i  OfficeoftheHighRepresentative ; OSCE i  OrganizationforSecurityandCooperationinEurope  PR   i  ProportionalRepresentation  RS   i  RepublikaSrpska r SFOR i  StabilizationForce N UN   i  UnitedNations * UNDP i  UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme c UNHCR i  UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees ? UNICEF i  UnitedNationsChildrensFund  UNOPS i  UnitedNationsOfficeofProjectServices   UNPROFOR UnitedNationsPeacekeepingForce v!  USAID i  USAgencyforInternationalDevelopment R"! WFP i  WorldFoodProgramme .#" WHO i  WorldHealthOrganization  $g# =    &ҿ%%&ʨ%&ҿf    Glossary=Jp_ p P&!%! P&!%   &ʨ%f  Ambulante Communitylevelprimaryhealthcareclinics K'"& Domzdravljas0 Largerprimaryhealthcarecentreswhichcoordinatedandsupervisedthe '(#' ambulantes  )" )" Hejab i  HeadscarfwornbyMuslimwomen  )<%)    Z      v&ҿ%%&ʨq%&ҿf    ExecutivesummaryZrDev s      vHeq&ʨ%Hef    On14December1995,theBosnianconflictofficiallycametoanend.Afternearlyfour / yearsofwarwhichengulfedthecountry,250,000personsaredead,overtwomillionaredisplacedinternallyorabroad,theinfrastructureisinruins,theeconomyincollapse,andsocietyfragmentedbydistrustandsuspicionaswellasdisplacementandshock.Moreover,theconclusionoftheconflictresultedinthedivisionofthecountryalongethniclines.Bosniahasnowmovedintowhatisreferredtoasthestabilizationperiodinwhichitisenvisagedthattheeconomywillberevived,self-sufficiencyincreased,andthereturnandreintegrationofrefugeesandthedisplacedwillbeachieved.However,manypoliticalhurdlesstandinthewayofachievingtheseobjectives.  Thegenderedconsequencesofthewararemostimmediatelyapparentinthepredominantlymaledeathtollandfromthatthesex-ratioimbalanceandincreaseddependencyratiointhepost-conflictpopulation.Thesedemographicfactorswillposeconstraintstowomensmobility,time,andaccesstoresources.Inaddition,theexigenciesofthewar(e.g.theabsenceofmalelabour)necessitatedwomenassumingresponsibilitiesbeyondthosetraditionallyascribed,posingachallengetoconventionalgenderrolesandidentities.Whereasfluidityingenderrolesandresponsibilitieswasacceptedduringthewar,inthepostwareratherehasbeenanemphasisonreturningtothepre-warconstructionofgenderroles,stressingwomensobligationsinthehome.Importantly,thishasbeenexpressedbybothmenandwomenfromvaryingclassandgeographicalbackgrounds.Theseattitudeswillfurtherinhibitwomensabilitytotakeadvantageofstrategicgainsmadeduringthewar,forexampleincreasedaccesstoandparticipationincommunityadministrativestructures.  Inmanyconflicts,womenareseentoconstitutetheoverwhelmingmajorityofthedisplaced.However,thelackofdatainBosnia,specificallygenderdisaggregateddata,rendersitimpossibletodrawanyconclusionsastothemake-upofthedisplacedpopulation.Regardless,displacementhassignificantgenderedconsequences,relatingparticularlytothebreakupofcommunitystructuresandtheabilitytointegrateintonewenvironments.Whilebothwomenandmenrelyoncommunitiesforbasicformsofsocialexchange,womendefinedcommunityorganizationandrelations,particularlyinruralsettings.Thebreakupofcarefullycraftednetworksbasedontrustandreciprocitywilllimittheirstrategiesforcopingwithduress.ThedistrustwhichpervadesBosniahasandwillcontinuetohamperpeoplesabilitytoforgenewtiesorintegrateintonewcommunities,whichwillposeparticularproblemsforwomenontheirownorwithchildren.  Despiteincreasedeconomicactivityandeffortstoimproveself-sufficiencyinthepostwarperiod,manyhouseholdsremainvulnerabletoshocksandcrises.Again,itisimpossibletodiscernfromavailabledataifwomenaremorelikelytobevulnerablethanmen,norshouldthatassumptionbemade.Genderisanimportantelementdeterminingvulnerability,notablywithregardtotheheavierworkburdenonwomeninthehome,discriminationagainstwomeninthelabourmarketandeconomyandrestrictedaccessofwomentoresources.However,ethnicityalsoremainsakeydeterminantofvulnerabilityrelatingtopreferentialaccesstoresources,benefits,andjobs.Class,ageanddisablementhavealsobeenseentoaffectabilitytocopewithshock.Whileprogrammestoprovidebasicnecessitiesexistforthoseconsideredmostvulnerable,theyfallshortinnotidentifyingandaddressingthemultifacetedcausesofvulnerability.  Effortshavebeenmade,however,todecreasedependencyandincreaseself-sufficiencyforwhichemploymentandincomegenerationhavebecomecentraltothestrategiesofinternationaldonors.However,theopportunitiesformenandwomeninthelabourmarketarestarklydifferentiatedandseemtoreflectpre-wargender-typingofoccupations.Women,forexample,arevirtuallyexcludedfromconstruction-relatedjobs,whichiswherethebulkofcurrentjobvacanciesistobefound.Rather,theyareencouragedtoassume traditionaloccupationsinadministrativefields,clothingmanufacture,orintheproductionofhome-madegoods.Horizontalaswellasverticalsegregationinthelabourforce,wherewomenconstitutetheloweststrata,alsokeepsthemmarginalizedfromdecision-makingbodiesandspheresofinfluence. 0K,2   Womenshealthdeclinedappreciablyduringthewar,particularlytheirreproductiveandmentalhealth.Concertedeffortsweremadebynumerousinternationalorganizationstoprovidesupporttowomensurvivorsoftrauma.Significantly,itwasnotedthatoneofthemaincausesofdepressionwasunemployment.Moreover,wheretherehavebeensundryinitiativestoaddressthementalhealthneedsofwomen,fewsuchprogrammestargetmen.Thisoversightatthesametimeemphasizeswomenasvictimsandneglectsthehealthneedsofmenwhich,ifunattended,mayresultinincreasedfamilyandcommunityviolence.  Inconsideringtheimpactofthewaronwomen,itiscriticaltoappreciatetheheterogeneityofthepopulationpriortothewar.Notonlydiddifferentwomenexperiencethewardifferently,theirpre-warpositioninginformsthewayinwhichtheyrespondtotheconsequencesofwar" _   forexample,amongthedisplacedpopulationaswellaswomenwhohadbeenhousewiveswithonlyaprimaryschooleducationandwomenwhowereurbanprofessionalswithsecondaryorhigherqualifications.Thesameistrueforfemaleex-combatantsandothercategoriesofwhatareoftenreferredtoas war-affectedgroups.  Thesituationofwomenisunlikelytobeimprovedthroughextantinstitutionalstructures,whichinfactappeartobebiasedagainstincreasedparticipationofwomeninthepublicsphere.Womenarevirtuallyinvisibleindecision-makingbodies,particularlyinthepoliticalrealm.CurrentlegalandregulatoryframeworksinhibitprivateinitiativesinthebusinessandNGOsectors.Particularlydisturbingistherecentdraftlabourlawwhichemphasizeswomensreproductiverole,diminishingopportunitiesfortheiradvancementinproductivecapacities.  Bothemergencyandrehabilitationassistancehavebeentargetedatwomenintheirdomesticcapacities,focusingontheirpracticalneeds,withminimalconsiderationorroomforidentificationofstrategicinterests.Overall,therehasbeenalimiteduseofparticipatorymethodologiesinthedesignandimplementationofprojects.Insomecases,thishasledtoamisidentificationofneedsandsourcesofvulnerability.Moreover,thereappeartobefewgenderspecialistsorfocalpointsonthegroundandalmostnocollectionofgenderdisaggregateddataonbeneficiarypopulations.  Inadditiontointernationalprogrammesforwomen,therearenowover50localorganizationsrunbywomen,mostlytargetingwomenbeneficiaries.Theyrangeinmandatefrombasicneedsprovisiontohumanrightsmonitoringandencouragingwomenspoliticalparticipation.Someorganizationswerefoundedduringthewaraseitheroff-shootsofinternationalprogrammesorasspontaneousinitiatives.Othershaveemergedinthepostwarera.Thesegroupsclearlyconstituteasolidbaseofthecivilsociety,yetmanyarereticenttoengageinthepublicarenaandhavenothadtheinstitutionalsupportwhichwouldpreparethemforthatrole.  Bosnianwomensowninitiativesofferthebestopportunityforidentifyingandredressingtheinequalitiesandbarrierstowomensequalparticipationintheeconomy,labourmarket,andkeydecision-makingbodies.Thatsomanydiverseorganizationshaveemergedisapositivesignofwomensincreasedwillingnesstoplayactiverolesinemergingcivilsociety.Theseeffortsshouldbefostered,carefully,toensurethatsustainableorganizationsremaininplacewellbeyondthewithdrawaloftheinternationalcommunity,tocontinuetoserveandpromotethediverseinterestsofwomeninpostwarBosniaandHerzegovina.  TheensuingreportisbasedondatacollectedandinterviewsconductedduringatwoweekvisittothefieldinJanuary1997.Theconsultantcarriedout33semi-structuredinterviewsinallwithrepresentativesfromgovernmentministries,thedonorcommunity,internationalandlocalNGOs,andwithindividualsandgroupsofBosnianmenandwomen.Additionally,thereportreferstosecondarytextsandinformationgatheredduringapreviousvisittoBosniainJune1996.  Duringthefieldvisit,theconsultanttravelledtoSarajevo,Mostar,Tuzla,GorniVakuf,andBanjaLuka.MuchoftheevidencegatheredisfromfederationterritorygivenlogisticalandpoliticalconstraintstoobtaininginformationfromtheRepublikaSrpska(RS).ThesefactorsobviouslydetractfromtheconclusionsofthereportanditissuggestedthatmoreextensiveresearchbefocusedontheparticularitiesoftheRS.Italsoproveddifficulttogainaccesstorural w0+3 areasineitherentity.Additionally,timeconstraints,unavailabilityofrelevantdata,andlanguageposedparticulardifficulties.  TheconsultantisdeeplyindebtedtothestaffoftheILOOfficeinSarajevoforfacilitatingpracticalandlogisticalaspectsofhervisit.  p   Z      v&ҿ%%&ʨq%&ҿf    1. v TheconflictZydi `      vHeq&ʨ%Hef  =    &ҿ%%&ʨ%&ҿf    1.1. i Politicalhistory=zsed  `/ `   &ʨ%f    ThewarinBosnia,whicheruptedinApril1992,isbestdescribedasacomplexpolitical [ emergencyencompassingelementsofanerodingnationState,afalteringeconomy,externalaggression,internalfracture,internationalengagement,massivepopulationdisplacement,andtheprominenceofethno-nationalism.  From1945to1980,JosipBroz(Tito)soughttoestablishunityandethnicharmonyamongthepopulationsinthesixrepublicsofYugoslavia.Followinghisdeathin1980,nationalunitybegantodisintegrate.AstherepublicsbegantodemandmoreautonomyfromBelgrade,Serbnationalismexperiencedarevival.Moreover,theYugoslaveconomyhadsufferedfirstfrommassivedebtinthe1970sandthenfromhyper-inflationinthe1980s.ThiscombinationoffactorsledthenorthernandmoreprosperousrepublicsofCroatiaandSloveniatodeclareindependenceinJuly1991.Rejectingwhatitconsideredanillegalsecession,BelgradeattackedfirstSlovenia(thefightingtherelastedonlytendays)andthenCroatia.TheSerbo-CroatconflictwasendedbyaninternationallybrokeredceasefireinJanuary1992.  InMarch1992,Bosniahelditsownreferendumonindependence,whichwasapprovedbyatwothirdsmajority.SeekingtoremainpartofaGreaterSerbia,BosnianSerbnationalistsboycottedthereferendumandthreatenedmilitaryresistancetosecessionfromYugoslavia.UponinternationalrecognitionofBosniasindependence,BosnianSerbmilitias,withsupportfromtheBelgradecontrolledYugoslavNationalArmy,begantheiroffensiveinBosniaon6April1992.  FightingbetweentheBosnianMuslim/CroatandBosnianSerbforceswasconcentratedinthenorthernandeasternpartsofBosnia.Yetin1993,fightingbrokeoutbetweentheBosnianCroatandBosnianMuslimarmiesasaresultofgrowingdistrustbetweenthetwosidesandCroatclaimstopartsofwesternandsouthernBosnia.Thisconflictspreadthroughthecentral,westernandsouthernpartsofBosniathusleavingvirtuallynopartofBosniauntouchedbythewar.  Forfouryears,thewarinBosniawasfuelledbyapoliticallymanufacturedresurgenceofethno-nationalismwhichhadtwoprincipaloutcomes.First,distrustandfearspreadamongthepopulationleadingtoabreakdownincommunityandpersonalrelations.Thesecondconsequence,ethniccleansing,whichcametocharacterizethewar,wasatonceamilitarystrategytopreventreprisalfromdefeatedareas,andfortheBosnianSerbsitwasalsoameansofexpungingtheelementswhichwereperceivedtothreatentheexistenceoftheSerbsandtheSerbnation.  Ethniccleansingwasagenderedprocessinwhichwomenofotherethnicitieswererapedsystematicallybothtomartheirethnicpurityandtoengenderfearthroughoutthecommunityandencourageflight.Menweresenttoconcentrationcampsand/orexecuted.Itisestimatedthat20,000-50,000womenwererapedduringthewar,someinrapecamps.Over10,000menremainmissing.Morethan2millionpeoplewereforciblydisplaced,largelyasaconsequenceofethniccleansing.ItshouldbenotedthatwhileethniccleansingwasprimarilyimplementedbytheBosnianSerbs,BosnianCroatsandMuslimsalsoadoptedthisstrategy.  InternationalmediationeffortswereongoingthroughoutthewarandsucceededinendingtheconflictbetweentheMuslimandCroatarmiesinMarch1994,atwhichtimetheBosniacCroat5 J00  1      ׀Federationwascreated.AUnitedNationsPeacekeepingForce(UNPROFOR)was )<%) deployedtosecuresafepassageforhumanitarianaidconvoys.UNPROFORdidnot,however,haveapeace-enforcingmandatetoprotectthepopulation.NATOwasauthorizedtoanddidcarryoutairstrikesagainstBosnianSerbpositionsinresponsetoviolationsofinternationalagreements, suchastheBosnianSerbattackontheUNProtectedAreaofSrebrenica.Aninternationalarms O-(- embargohadbeenimposedonthewholeterritoryofBosniaandaneconomicembargoagainsttheBosnianSerbsandSerbia.   InNovember1995apeaceagreementwasfinallyreachedthroughnegotiationsconductedatanAmericanairbaseinDayton,Ohio.On14December1995,thewarringfactionssignedtheDayton-ParisPeaceAgreement,formalizingboththecessationofhostilitiesandthepartitioningofBosniaalongethniclines.AccordingtotheAgreement,theRepublicofBosniaandHerzegovinanowconsistsoftwoentities:theFederationofBosniaandHerzegovina(51percentoftheterritory)andRepublikaSrpksa(49percent).Undertheaccords,theInternationalPeacekeepingForce(IFOR)wasestablished,aframeworkforelectionswasconstructed,andmechanismsfortherepatriationofrefugeesandprotectionofhumanrightswerecreated.Inaddition,theConstitutionfortheRepublicofBosniaandHerzegovinawasincludedintheagreement,identifyinggovernmentstructuresanddelineatingresponsibilitiesbetweentheRepublicandtheentities.AlsomandatedbyDaytonwastheextraditionofwarcriminalstotheInternationalWarCrimesTribunalatTheHague.=    &ҿ%%&ʨ%&ҿf    1.2. i Stabilizationperiod=-50, : r   r    &ʨ%f    FollowingtheSeptember1996elections,Bosniaenteredatwo-yearphasereferredtoasthe m stabilizationperiod.ItisenvisagedbytheinternationalcommunitythatduringthisphasethefullimplementationoftheDaytonAccordswillbeachieved,therepatriationandreintegrationofrefugeesandtheinternallydisplacedwillbecompleted,andthathumanitarianassistancewillbephasedout.Despitetheextendedpresenceofaninternationalpeacekeepingforce(StabilizationForce-SFOR)topromoteastableenvironment,thereremainsignificanthurdlestoachievetheseobjectives.  Whilethewarhaseffectivelyended,ethniccleansingcontinuesthroughoutthecountryandisbeingconductedbyallthreeethnicparties.Thismakesdifficult,ifnotimpossible,thetaskofrebuildingtrustandrestoringrelationshipsattheinterpersonal,communityandnationallevels.Moreover,itislikelytostymiethereturnofrefugeesfromabroadandtheintegrationofinternallydisplacedpersons.Arelatedconcernisthewide-scaleabuseofhumanrightswhichpersiststhroughoutbothentities.  ReconstructionandeconomicrevitalizationeffortshaveachievedsomesuccesssincetheDaytonAccordsweresigned.However,unemploymentcontinuestoexceed50percentwithfewnewjobopportunitiesbeingcreated.Additionally,thelackofdeminingactivitiescontinuestothreatenbothlivesandlivelihoods,particularlyinruralareas.  Duringthisperiod,menandwomeninBosniaarecomingtotermswiththeconsequencesofthewarwhichincludestheredefinitionandrenegotiationofgenderroles.Theexigenciesofwarhadnecessitatedanincreasedrelianceontheparticipationofwomenincommunitymobilization,wagelabour,andinmaintainingthesecurityofthehousehold,someofwhichareactivitiesnormallybeyondtheascribedresponsibilitiesofwomen.Whilethewarhasended,thevestigesoftheconflict(e.g.absenceofmen,highunemployment)havepreventedmenandwomenfromreturningtotheirtraditionallyascribedroles.ThissituationdoesoffertransformativepotentialforwomeninBosniansociety.However,bothmenandwomenfromurbanandruralareashaveexpresseddiscomfortwiththeexpandedroleofwomeninsociety.HowpostwargenderidentitiesareshapedinthecomingmonthsandyearswilldependlargelyontheabilityofBosniansocietytoacceptanexpandedroleforwomenandontheopportunitiesforwomenintheeconomy,labourmarketandsocietyaswellastheextenttowhichexternalsupportstressesgendersensitivityandsupportswomenschangedroles.  -)/ :bZ      v&ҿ%%&ʨq%&ҿf    2. v Socio-economicissues:Thepre-war   v situationandimpactsand v implicationsoftheconflictZоeen or) r     vHeq&ʨ%Hef  =    &ҿ%%&ʨ%&ҿf    2.1. i Demographics=ecur |  CX   C   &ʨ%f    Inbothpopulationandlandmass,BosniawasthethirdlargestrepublicinYugoslavia(EIU,  > 1991:8).The1991censusregisteredBosniaspopulationat4.3millionofwhom41percentidentifiedasMuslim, J   1      ׀31.4percentasSerb,17.3percentasCroat,and7.6percentas    Yugoslavorother(WorldBank,1996a:2).Ofthepre-warpopulation,womenconstituted51percent(FederationofBosniaandHerzegovina,1996:6).Sixty-sevenpercentofthepopulationwasbetweentheagesof16and65(ibid).Birth-ratesinBosniaof14.9birthsper1000inhabitants(FederationofBosniaandHerzegovina,1996:5)werealmostidenticaltotheYugoslaviaaverageof15per1000(WorldBank,1992:271)andonaparwithmosthighincomeindustrialstates(ibid).Themajority,or62percent,ofBosniaspopulationresidedinurbanareas(FederationofBosniaandHerzegovina,1996:4),higherthanthenationalaverageof56percenturbanresidencewhichhadincreasedfrom31percentin1965,reflectingashiftfromagriculturalproductiontoindustrialization(WorldBank,1992:279).  Asaresultofthewar,Bosniasdemographicprofilehasbeendramaticallyaltered.Thegenderedimpactsofdemographicchange,evidentinthecurrentsexratioimbalance,anincreasingdependencyratioandindisplacementandmigration,havelong-lastingimplicationsforhouseholdcompositionandrelationsandforwomensprospectsintheeconomyandsociety.:p%&ʨS:p  f    2.1.1. i Sexratioimbalance ?^8} 8 &ҿ%S&ʨ%%&ҿ  f    CombiningfiguresfromtheRepublikaSrpksaandtheFederation,250,000peopleare # thoughttohavebeenkilledorremainmissing(WorldBank,1996h).Thereisnoavailabledisaggregateddemographicinformationonthewardead.Althoughciviliancasualtiesaresaidtohavebeenextensive,themajorityofcasualtiesarepresumedtohavebeenmaleciviliansandcombatantsintheirproductiveyears.Thegendereddeathtollisparticularlyevidentinareasofethniccleansing.Inaddition,thereiscurrentevidenceofincreasingmaleoutmigrationandofmalerefugeesremaininginhostcountrieswhiletheirwivesandchildrenreturntoBosnia. J   2       K   Accordingtoinformalsurveysconductedbylocalauthorities,womensshareofthetotalpopulationhasincreasedto55percent(from51percentpre-war),althoughsexratiosmayvarybetweenmunicipalities(UNHCR,January1996:10).Whilethereisnodataonfemale-headedhouseholdsorwarwidows,theabsenceofmenandmalelabournotonlyincreasestheeconomic ^#  burdenforwomenheadsofhouseholds,butalsohasimplicationsforhousing,agriculturalprospects,andaccesstoresourcesandbenefits. %s "   Housingposesaparticularproblemforfemaleheadedhouseholdswithregardtobothclaimingandrebuildingproperty.Anecdotalaccountssuggestthatwomen,particularlythoseinternallydisplaced,aremorelikelytobeevictedfromtemporaryhousingthanaremen.Therearealsonospecificmechanismstoguaranteewomensclaimstothepropertyofdeceasedmalekin.Also,constructionofdwellingswasacommunityprocessundertakenandorganizedbymen.Hencethegenderedcomponentoftheprocessmaymakeitmoredifficultforawomantomobilizemeninthecommunityonherown,particularlyinsituationswherecommunitycompositionandstructurehavechanged. +S'*   Foodsufficiencyandagriculturalincomeopportunitieswillalsosufferfromtheabsenceofmalelabourinthatwomenreliedonmalelabourformorephysicallydemandingtaskssuchasclearingfieldsandharvestingofthegardenplotstheytended(Bringa,1995:53).Withouttheunpaidlabourofmalekin,womenscapacitywillbereducedinproducingcertainfoodstuffsforhomeconsumptionandmarketsale.  Itwasreportedinafocusgroupmeetingthat,priortothewar,womenhadlittleinvolvementinformalcommunitystructures,ashouseholdswererepresentedbymalemembersatcommunitymeetings.Insomecases,thewarbroughtaboutmoreactivefemaleparticipation,giventheabsenceofmenduringthewarandthenecessityofmobilizingallcommunitymembersincollectivesurvivalstrategies.However,wherewomenhavenopriorexperienceindealingwithlocalauthorities,theyhavebeenreticenttoapproachauthoritiestorequesttheirpensionsandotherbenefits.Thisisparticularlythecasewithdisplacedwomenwhohavetodealwithpersonsandadministrationsunfamiliartothem. JJJ  1       P  :p%&ʨS:p  f    2.1.2. i Changeinagestructure<sing ^ f    f  &ҿ%S&ʨ%%&ҿ  f    IntheFederation,thefertilityratewashalvedduringthewar,whiletheinfantmortalityrate Q  trebled.In1993,therewere7.2registeredbirthsper1,000inhabitants,andaninfantmortalityrateof25-30,whichrepresentsanegativegrowthof1823per1,000inhabitants(FederationofBosniaandHerzegovina,1996:6).Maternalmortalityisalsothoughttohaveincreasedsignificantly,althoughthereisnorecordeddata.Inthemonthsfollowingtheceasefire,however,birthratesjumpedbacktopre-warlevels.InSarajevoandMostar,birthratesaresaidtohavedoubledinthefirsthalfof1996butthenbegantodeclineinthesecondhalfoftheyear.l Jd d   2      ׀The y postwarincreaseinbirthscombinedwithconcentrationofwardeathsamongtheproductiveagepopulationwillincreasethedependencyratiooverthenextfewyearsastheunder16andover65agegroupsincreasetheirshareofthepopulation.Astheresponsibilityforthecareofbothchildrenandtheelderlyhastraditionallybeenascribedtowomen,thechangeinagestructure  ofthepopulationwillresultinagrowingstrainonwomenstime,mobility,andresources. h :p%&ʨS:p  f    2.1.3. i Displacementsing U^~ } ~ &ҿ%S&ʨ%%&ҿ  f    Thewarengenderedmassivepopulationmovementsthroughwidespreadfightingand i strategicethniccleansingoperations.Approximately1millionBosniansremaininternallydisplacedpersons(IDPs),whileanothermillionremainasrefugeesabroadin25hostcountriesinEurope(UNHCR,1996c),w J  3      ׀theUS,Canada,andAustralia,andtheformerrepublicsof  Z  Yugoslavia.  Itisdifficulttodrawconclusionsonthegenderedcompositionoftheinternallydisplacedandrefugeepopulationsgiventhedearthofdisaggregateddata.However,inareaswhichexperiencedethniccleansing,particularlyineasternBosnia,womenarelikelytoaccountforahighpercentageofthedisplacedpopulation,giventhatmenwereseparatedfromtheirfemalekinandprobablykilled.Whetherornotwomenconstitutethemajorityofthedisplacedpopulation,theeffectsofdislocationhavesignificantgenderconsequences,particularlywithregardtocommunitystructureandabilitytointegrate.  Communitybreakupthroughdislocationisacommonresultofconflict(Date-Bah,1996:8).Inpre-warBosnia,especiallyinruralareas,thecommunitywasintegratedthroughthesocialbondsandreciprocalobligationscreatedbywomen(Bringa,1995:69).Thisinvolvedformsof q*%+ socialexchangewhichincluded,inruralareas,forexample,barteragreements(ibid.,51,70).Communitybondswerealsoestablishedbymenthroughvoluntaryandcommunityworkactivities(ibid).Householdswerereliantonsucharrangementstoundertakeprojectssuchashouse-buildingoragriculturaltasksandinthecelebrationofmajorlife-cycleevents(ibid.,68).Thebreakupofthesenetworkshasleftpeoplewithoutthesupportsystemsfromwhichtheyhaddrawnbothmoralandmaterialsupportandlackingameansformitigatingtheconsequencesofcrises.Thereconstitutionorrebuildingofnetworksishamperedbyapervasiveatmosphereofdistrust.CommunityintegrationhasalsobeencitedbyBosnianrefugeesabroadasakeyreasonfornotreturningtoBosnia. J  1      ׀     Bycontrast,somecommunitiesdisplacedasagrouphavebeenabletomaintaintheirlocalnetworks.TheWomenofSrebrenica,forexample,wereevacuatedasagrouptoTuzlabytheSerbs.They,andotherdisplacedpersonsassociations, J  2      ׀havebecomevocaladvocacy t  organizations,inadditiontoprovidingmutualsupport.Additionally,insomecommunitiestheexigenciesofthewarbroughtpeopletogetherandexpandedcommunitystructurestoincluderefugees.Thesehaveservedasabasisforcollectiveactionandhavealsoofferedwomenmoreopportunitiestoparticipateindecisionmaking.  Yet,thereisalsoevidenceofacutedifficultieswithintegrationintonewcommunitiesforbothinternallydisplacedpersonsandrefugeesreturningfromabroad.Theintegrationorreintegrationofsuchindividualshasnotbeensmoothasresentmenthasbeenexpressedbymenandwomeninresidentcommunitiestowardsbothcategoriesofdisplacedpersons.InurbancentressuchasTuzlaandSarajevo,whichabsorbedagreatnumberofrefugeesfromruralpartsofeasternBosnia,Bosniansandinternationalpersonnelreportthaturbanresidentsmaintainaprejudiceagainsttheruralrefugees,regardingthemasdirty,illiterate,andgenerallybackward.Inafocusgroupstudyoneducation,itwasrevealedthatparentsinasuburbanareaclosetoSarajevo equatedlackofproperhygienetotheissueofrefugeesandthedisplaced(Shahriari,1996:7).Bycontrast,thosefromruralareashavetendedtoviewcitydwellersaslackingmoralturpitude(Bringa,1995:60).Forolderwomen,theurbancultureisperceivedasthreateningtotheidentitiesandvaluesofwhichtheyareguardiansandtheirownsuspicionsmayimpedetheirwillingnesstointegrate(ibid.,1995:58).  Bothmenandwomensufferfromsuchprejudiceandinthecaseofdisplacedpersonsfromruralareas,somehavebecomesecondclasscitizensincities.Thisdiscriminationhasaffectedmenandwomendifferently.Forexample,asmostemploymentschemesaretargetedatdisplacedwomen,menmayhaveparticulardifficultyaccessingemploymentorengaginginincomegeneratingprojects.*w>#?d dd Xdd Xdd Xv)"v)"w,!+  ' "# /'@BB)MBox1 #$ @M Magbula:Adisplacedwoman ,"$ % / //,  &ҿ%%&ʨI%&ҿMagbulaDivocvicislivinginTuzla,havingbeendisplacedfromSrebrenica.Currently,sheis &n!& enrolledinaweavingprojectfordisplacedwomen.Shehasonlyaprimaryschooleducationandhadnotworkedoutsidethehomeduringthewar.InTuzla,sheliveswithher26yearoldsonwhohadattendedvocationalschoolpriortothewarbutisunabletofindworkinTuzla.Thustheybothliveofftheincomesheearnsthroughherweaving#i'I##&ʨ%i'##)$+ //   # ynvv0vvzvvi 0   ` ////v &ʨ%%&ʨ&ʨ%%&ʨ     Inadditiontobeingvulnerabletohousingeviction,displacedwomenarelikelytohavetoundertakedemeaningjobswhichurbanwomenrefuse.Withregardtorefugeesreturningfromoverseas,organizationsinvolvedinrepatriationhavereporteddifficultiesinfacilitatingreturnprogrammesassomewithinlocalcommunitiesandmunicipalstructureshaveexpressedresentmenttowardspeoplewhonotonlyfledtheviolence,butalsohadtheopportunitytoearnwagesinhardcurrency. J   1      ׀Forrefugees,biasandexclusioninBosniawillcompoundthenegative  ( experiencemanyhavehadabroad.Legalstatus,rightsandbenefitsvariedfromcountrytocountry,andwhilerefugeeswereallowedtoworkinmostcountries,integrationassistancewassomewhatlessavailable.ThespecialstatusgiventoBosnianrefugeescalledtemporaryprotectionwas liftedbyUNHCRinDecember1996,pavingthewayforlarge-scalerepatriationwhichisexpectedtobegininspring1997.5l J  2       t  =    &ҿ%%&ʨ%&ҿf    2.2. i Workingandlivingconditions=Jmaki  ] ,  ]    &ʨ%f    Workingandlivingconditionsdifferedbetweenruralandurbanareasinpre-warBosnia.