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Regional Seminar Proceedings 1993 Questions Discussed in Work Groups During the last day of the seminar, the participants were divided into working groups, each of which were given specific questions related to the previous topics addressed by the seminar during the previous days. The questions and findings as they were presented are briefly described in this chapter.
FINDINGS OF GROUP 1 General Before a decision is taken on the choice of hauling equipment, a careful analysis should be carried out on the alternative means of transport which may be appropriate (i.e., animal drawn carts, tractors and trailers, trucks). Only when a proper cost analysis has proved the viability of the tractor-trailer alternative, should the following recommendations be considered. Tractor-trailer Combination Various labour-based programmes have run trails using different design and sizes of trailers and tractors. Experience has shown that basic, unsophisticated and solid designs provide the most reliable services, reducing the amount of mechanical maintenance and ensuring a high rate of plant availability. The work group tried to find recommendations for the design and specifications for a tractor and trailer suitable for gravel haulage for labour-based road works. This trailer should be considered for new projects which as yet do not possess any equipment. The findings of Group 1 can be summarized as described in the table on the following page. Trailers The trailer loading capacity should be limited to 3 cubic metres. The chassis should be carried by an A-frame and a single axle. In order to increase the traction capability of the tractor, at least one third of the trailer weight and load should be transferred to the rear axle of the tractor. The choice of tyres should correspond to the most common truck tyre available in the country. Side doors for unloading are not recommended. Experience from Kenya shows that this item often breaks and requires a great deal of maintenance. Secondly, it has been proven through time studies that the increased unloading time is marginal. When also considering the increased availability rates of trailers without side doors, it is clear that this is the most feasible alternative. Variations In order to reduce the unloading time, one may experiment with the use of front side doors. However, it is recommended that the increased efficiency due to using side doors should be closely monitored and documented before it is introduced as a standard item. A second variation may be the introduction of removable tail gates in order to increase the carrying capacity of the trailer as well as reducing spilling. It is not recommended that new programmes introduce or initiate trails on tipping trailers. Ongoing test trails with non-hydraulic tipping trailers in Kenya are promising. However, it should be emphasized that they are still at the prototype stage. If the trails finally show positive results, this experience will be disseminated to other projects. New projects should wait with the introduction of tipping trailers until the MRP has reached its conclusions.
Tractors The appropriate tractor for hauling a 3 m3 trailer of gravel is a 2 wheel drive with a 55 - 65 HP engine. 4 wheel tractors are not necessary for this purpose. If the tractor is to be used for other purposes (ploughing, towed grading, etc.), one may consider more powerful models. One solution is to invest in a limited number of more powerful multi-purpose tractors. The remaining fleet of tractors with the above specifications would be entirely designed for gravel haulage. Trailers are repeatedly hitched and unhitched from the tractor. The tractor should therefore be fitted with a heavy duty automatic hitch which picks up and detaches the trailer automatically. The pin and eye lock is the most common lock system and cheapest solution. The ball and cup mechanism is more solid but also more expensive. The rough environment on labour-based road sites and in the gravel quarries requires that the tractor be fitted with heavy duty rims and industrial tyres. To ensure a regular and sufficient supply of spares, the chosen tractor supplier should have a significant market share in the client country. If the equipment is to be used in mountainous or steep terrain, it is advised that the tractor be fitted with roll-over bars. In flat terrains this is not necessary. It is not very often that the tractors capsize due to the trailer tipping over to the side. Usually the hitch brakes before rolling the tractor over. Further Action The above specifications are similar to the trailer-tractor combination recently developed by the Minor Road programme in Kenya. It is proposed that these specifications be distributed by ASIST to the various labour-based programmes in the region. One way of doing this, is to publish the design and technical drawings in the next issue of the ASIST journal. The above findings should also be incorporated in a revised version of the ILO Guide to Tools and Equipment for Labour-based Road Construction. A final decision on this activity will be taken based on the review and evaluation of the ASIST programme scheduled for January 1994. Finally, the national executing agencies responsible for the road programmes should insist on these standardized specifications when equipment is supplied by the donors. FINDINGS OF GROUP 2 Main Question The main issue discussed in Group 2 was how to move labour-based road construction and maintenance from the public sector to the private sector involving domestic small-scale contractors as well as consultants. In order to achieve this transfer, there is a great demand for training of Government staff, as well as the various levels of staff in the local construction and consultancy firms. Therefore, the group focussed on the desirability and type of training to be given to contractors and consultants. The topic was sub-divided into the following key questions:
There was full agreement along the group members that a structured training programme is a key element for the successful involvement of the domestic private sector in labour-based road construction and maintenance works. Classification of Contractors Before a training programme is formulated, it is important to define the various types of contracting companies which can be found in developing countries. The table below provides a general description of the different types of contractors categorized according to their size and the type of works they are able to carry out. Petty Contractors The petty contractor is generally referred to as the one-man contractor. This category of contractors usually consists of one man firms, sometimes assisted by a limited amount of unskilled workers. They may be labour contractors, usually consisting of a businessman sub-contracted to carry out specific work relying mainly on unskilled casual labour. Organized local community groups such as farmers associations and village welfare groups can also be classified as petty contractors. Types of Contractors
A common feature for this group is that they are not formally registered and do not possess any capital and are therefore extremely vulnerable to cash-flow problems such as mobilization capital and late payments. The petty contractors normally do not possess any equipment, and lack any means of transport. Due to their lack of mobility, they are normally recruited from the vicinity of the project work sites. These contractors are mainly used for maintenance works or simple, clearly defined sub-contracts requiring a minimum of skilled labour and equipment. In Kenya, the lengthmen securing the routine maintenance of the minor roads network are organized as one-man contractors. In Lesotho, the Labour Construction Unit utilizes one-man contractors for contracting out masonry works for small bridges and culverts. Small-scale contractors Most domestic small-scale contractors are found in the building construction industry and the transport sector and are normally registered companies. Often limited, they still possess certain technical and managerial skills. However, experience shows that their organization requires further training in business management, accounting, mechanical maintenance, road and concrete technology, as well as in labour-based methods. Their equipment fleet is spares and often old and poorly standardized. Before they can be used for road rehabilitation works, it is usually necessary to assist them in the acquisition of additional light construction equipment (i.e., hauling and compaction equipment). Similar to the petty contractors, the small-scale contractors are often underfinanced and vulnerable to cash-flow distortions. Normally, these contractors do not operate their accounts through a bank. In many cases the local banks do not consider these firms as attractive clients and therefore do not provide them any service. After receiving appropriate training development assistance, these contractors have proven to be highly efficient in carrying out both road construction and maintenance works. They have shown good supply of work, regular and timely payments, etc.: they will survive as sound construction firms and an important component of the domestic construction industry. Large-scale contractors are often subsidiaries of large foreign multi-national companies in international competitive bidding and are often only present in the country while they are carrying out a contract. Once their assignment has been completed, they leave the country, including evacuating equipment and skilled staff. Due to this, their involvement provides a minimal technology transfer to the recipient country, resulting in a low sustainability and little institutionalization of skills and experience. In most cases, they regard the size of labour-based road contracts as too small for their interest. For these reasons, this category of contractors is not regarded as part of the beneficiary target group for training and development assistance. Training Material For the training and development of petty and small-scale contractors, it was acknowledged that there already exists a certain amount of training material produces by ongoing contractor development programmes in the region (ghana, Madagascar, Lesotho and Tanzania). This training material consists of (i) general literature on labour-based road construction and maintenance technology developed by the ILO, and (ii) specific material developed for contractor development and management. In addition, the ILO has produced a series of publications on domestic contractor development and management for the construction industry in general under its Improve Your Construction Business Programme (IYCB). However, this material needs to be further developed and specifically adapted to labour-based road works. Required Training Material Yet to be Developed Country Specific When commencing on a new programme the above mentioned literature needs to be adapted into country specific training material, taking into consideration local conditions, technical standards and type of works to be carried out. In some instances, it would be useful to translate the material into local language. Finally, it should be adapted to the level of education among the target group, in relation to the skills of the staff of the contractors, as well as the government implementing agency, i.e., supervisors, inspectors, mechanics, administrative staff, etc. Training of Trainers In order to ensure a sustainable programme, it is crucial that the training capacity for this type of programme be fully institutionalized in the country. To achieve this objective, there is a demand for a structured training programme for trainers. Available Technical and Managerial Training Material
Selection of Contractors Depending on the type of works to be carried out, there is a demand for developing guidelines for the identification and selection of contractors with the appropriate skill profiles. Employment Conditions In order to ensure smooth working relations between the workers and employers, it is recommended that a standard set of guidelines for employment conditions be developed. Training of Local Consultants When involving the private sector in the execution of labour-based road works, it is important not to leave out the consultancy firms. In the process of involving more and more parties in labour-based programmes, this knowledge and experience should also be disseminated to consultants. The preferred target group is local or indigenous companies, well established in the country. In order to transfer labour-based technology to consultants, there is a demand for training. As a basis, materials already available cover the various topics required. However, this material would have to be adapted to meet the specific future role and tasks of the consultants. In South Africa, local consultants have been involved in the design, implementation and monitoring of labour-based public works. For this purpose, they have developed a set of interim guidelines for the involvement of private consultants for this type of works, which may be a good basis for the further development of similar guidelines for other countries. Women’s Involvement It was acknowledged that women should play an important role in this programme and should be mobilised as contractors and consultants as well as being properly represented among the work force of both skilled and unskilled labour. In order to provide equal employment opportunities to both men and women, it is essential that proper guidance be provided on procedures and actions required to achieve this objective. Guidelines should be developed for selection and identification of contractors/consultants describing specific measures which ensure an active participation of women in the rural areas. Further Action Training programmes at national level should undertake the translation of the training materials into national or local languages. Furthermore, trainers should make better use of existing material as identified by the group. The Technical Enquiry Services of ALIST can assist in the distribution of the material. Training of trainers for small-scale road contractors development programmes is important. The ASIST Training of Trainers Course is still under development and should cater for this recommendation. Through the participation of two trainers for Ghana in the ALIST Training of Trainers course in Kenya, ALIST has established a contact with resource persons in the small-scale road contractor development programme in Ghana. During their visit to Kenya, ALIST requested them to design a purpose-made course for small-scale road contractors based on their past experience in contractor training. The registration and certification of the various types of contractors is an important issue. Identifying the unregistered contractors can often be difficult. If all contractors were registered, could also lead to improved Government recognition and commitment to this sector. FINDINGS OF GROUP 3 Introduction The main task of this group was to look at the organizational system required when developing small-scale contractors to execute labour-based road construction and maintenance works. As a general remark, it was acknowledged that the type and size of the programme and works to be carried out determine the type of contractors required, as well as the need for consultants. Furthermore, the availability, size and skills of the domestic contractors and consultants influence the design of a programme. This type of project, when involving the private sector, should be programmed on a long term basis. Role of Local Consultants When road rehabilitation and regravelling works of a certain size are awarded to labour-based contractors, local consultants can play a useful role. For routine maintenance, petty contracts and direct control by the road agency are more appropriate. The main advantages of involving local consultants in the design and implementation of labour-based orad programmes are: The main advantages of involving local consultants in the design and implementation of labour-based road programmes are: Consultants represent an additional capacity (manpower, skills), which can reduce the tasks of the respective Government organizations; The consultants can act as a neutral body; In order to protect their reputation, they will perform their duties on time (i.e., prepare certificates leading to timely payment of contractors). Training Before consultants can play a full role in labour-based road programmes, there is a demand for training of the consultants in labour-based technology, as well as establishing a capacity within the Government technical line agencies to control both the contractors and the consultants. This training programme will need to be developed in line with the size of the programme and the consultancy input requirements. Conclusions In order to involve the private sector fully in labour-based road works, the following activities were identified:
Relationship between large and small contractors The group discussed the possibility of using large contractors for training of small-scale contractors through sub-contracts. Their motivation of the large contractors to carry out such a training programme will depend on their terms of reference and the main objective of the project. Is the main objective the construction works or the development of private construction firms? In case of the latter, the role of the large contractors is better defined, and he will be judged on his training role performance. His motivation and interest will also depend on his fear of future competition. Training of small-scale contractors by large contractors could be initiated in two different ways: (i) Large contractor awarded contracts, but is forced to sub-contract a certain percentage of the works to smaller firms. (ii) Large contractor’s role is defined as training and development of smaller firms only. The second option means that project outputs should be defined in terms of competent small contractors trained in management, accounting, site management, etc. In general, the workshop participants had limited positive experience with on-the-job training by large contractors, and, in conclusion, recommended that the Government hire individual contractor specialists to work as consultants to train and guide small contractors.
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