Regional Seminar Papers 1997

Annex 1

Supporting Labour Cost Data

The data in this Annex has been used to prepare the Figures 2 & 3 in the main text.

Figure 2 – Unskilled Labour Wage Rates 1991 – Construction Sector
Europe & Selected Economically Developed Countries

January 1991 wage rates

Notes

*Assumes a 7 hour day
** Semi-skilled labourer

The cost of employing labour can be more than doubled by the mandatory and voluntary additional payroll costs.
The wage rates are usually quoted for work in the capital city.

Figure 3 – Average Daily Agricultural Wages, 1991

Table 1

Extracted From: Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 1994, ILO Geneva

Table 2

Extracted From: Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 1994, ILO Geneva

Table 3

Extracted From: Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 1994, ILO Geneva

Table 4

Extracted From: Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 1994, ILO Geneva

Notes

Exchange rates: Financial Times 20 August 1991, unless otherwise indicated

1. Monthly rates divided by 25
2. 1987 data
3. Weekly rate divided by 6
4. 1990 data
5. 1988 data
6. 1993 data
7. Hourly rates times 7
8. 1989 data
9. Skilled workers
10. Forestry

Annex 2

Supporting equipment cost data

The data in this Annex has been used to prepare Figure 7 in the main text. The costing method used for this example figure has been developed for the MART equipment guidelines which are currently under preparation.

The costing method is designed to include all cost components relating to the ownership, operation and overheads components. The approach may be used for any type of intermediate or sophisticated equipment.

The system allows the owner/user to make assumptions regarding the many variables affecting the cost of a piece of equipment. It must be appreciated that the actual overall costs will not be known until the day the piece of equipment is actually sold or scrapped (if adequate records have been kept throughout the equipment ownership). Costing therefore depends on good record keeping and a realistic appreciation and assessment of a range of important historical, current and future factors.

The system intends to highlight the real costs of financing and ownership which are neglected in many equipment management systems, and which can dwarf operating costs in a high-cost-finance environment; thus possibly adversely affecting management decisions on choice of technology or equipment. Costs are particularly sensitive to annual utilisation as Tables A & B show. Whereas many equipment items are designed to achieve annual utilisation of 1,000 to 1,500 hours of work for economic ownership, significantly lower utilisation can be extremely expensive and uneconomic. The system demonstrates that, for most roadworks in developing countries, the operating environment is particularly unfavourable to the use of sophisticated plant.

The costing system should allow contractors to quickly assess the affects of various assumptions or scenarios and how this will affect their income, outgoings and profits.

For Figure 7, the costing system has been used to compare the costs of a 120 hp motorgrader with a 100 hp 4WD agricultural tractor and heavy towed grader. Both machines are capable of similar physical performance as demonstrated by the Roads 2000 project in Kenya (Reference 19). The motorgrader hourly physical output is expected to be some 20% higher than the tractor and towed grader combination. However, the higher availability and flexibility of tractor use should allow higher utilisation and therefore much lower unit work costs.

For the Annex 2 calculation example, the following assumptions were made:-

Other annual utilisation assumptions were used to plot Figure 7.

COST CALCULATION 100 hp 4WD TRACTOR + TOWED GRADER (5t)

SHEET 1
TOTAL HOURLY CHARGE COMPRISES OWNERSHIP + OPERATING + OVERHEAD COSTS

OWNERSHIP COSTS COMPRISE:-
DEPRECIATION/REPLACEMENT (TABLE A1) PLUS FINANCE CHARGE (TABLE B1, B2 OR B3)
ALL TABLE A & B COSTS IN US$/HOUR

COST NEW - US$ 90,000 (INCLUDING ALL TAXES, DUTIES, CIF & DELIVERY CHARGES)

100 hp 4WD TRACTOR + TOWED GRADER (5t) sheet 2

NOTES

1. Finance charge (overleaf) calculated by the formula:-

COST CALCULATION 120 Hp MOTORGRADER
SHEET 1

TOTAL HOURLY CHARGE COMPRISES OWNERSHIP + OPERATING + OVERHEAD COSTS

OWNERSHIP COSTS COMPRISE:-
DEPRECIATION/REPLACEMENT (TABLE A1) PLUS FINANCE CHARGE (TABLE B1, B2 OR B3)

ALL TABLE A & B COSTS IN US$/HOUR

COST NEW – US$ 200,000 (INCLUDING ALL TAXES, DUTIES, CIF & DELIVERY CHARGES)

Ownership, operating and overhead costs are calculated on sheet 2:-

COST CALCULATION 120 Hp MOTORGRADER
SHEET 2

CONVERSION TO DAILY CHARGE RATE

NOTES

1 Finance charge (overleaf) calculated by the formula:-

Annex 3

Manufacturer's details

Arthur Garden Engineering

Galion House, Douglas & Dumphries Roads, Heavy Industrial Sites, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Tel: Int + 263 4 754272
Fax: Int + 263 4 754274

Colas Limited

Rowfant, Crawley, West Sussex, RH10 4NF, UK.
Tel: Int. + 44 (0) 1342 711000 Fax: Int. + 44 (0) 1342 711198/99
e-mail: StevenStJ@colas-ltd.demon.co.uk

The Phoenix Engineering Company Ltd

Phoenix Works, Chard, Somerset, TA 20 1JE, UK.
Tel: Int. + 44 (0) 1460 63531/2/3
Fax: Int. + 44 (0) 1460 67388

Reynolds International Inc

P O Box 550, McAllen, Texas 78505, USA.
Tel: Int + 1 210 687 7500
Fax: Int. + 1 210 630 5263

Simba International Ltd

Woodbridge Road, Sleaford, Lincolnshire, NG34 7EW, UK.
Tel: Int. + 44 (0) 1529 304654
Fax: Int. + 44 (0) 1529 413468

TBF Thompson (Engineering) Ltd

6-10 Killyvalley Road, Garvagh, Coleraine, Co. Londonderry, Northern Ireland, BT51 5JZ, UK.
Tel: Int. + 44 (0) 12665 58771
Fax: Int. + 44 (0) 12665 58906

Tinto

Hästt Zimbabwe, No 6 Nuffield Road, P O Box 2356, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Tel: Int + 263 4 756445/9
Fax: Int + 263 4 64726, 754333/6; 757000/3;

Turbomech

Cooper Motor Corporation, Agricultural Division, P O Box 30135, Nairobi, Kenya.
Tel: Int + 254 2 544505
Fax: Int + 254 2 542543

Development of Appropriate Compaction Equipment for Labour-based Gravelling Operations

Carl-Eric Hedström, Chief Technical Advisor, Labour-Based Component, Roads Training School, Roads Department, Zambia

Background

The Labour-based Road Improvement and Maintenance Project in the Northern Province of Zambia was transferred to Lusaka in June 1994. This project had been operational in Northern Province for about seven years under a NORAD supported Agricultural and Rural Development Programme.

The main objectives were to demonstrate and establish labour-based methods of road construction and maintenance by improving access to agriculturally productive areas in Northern Province.

The type of roads worked on were in most cases unclassified low traffic volume roads with a four metre carriageway. Compaction was achieved through a combination of natural consolidation and traffic compaction, or in exceptional cases by very light rollers for initial compaction.

However, in Lusaka, the Labour-based Project is part of a NORAD supported Road Sector Programme. It operates under the auspices of the Roads Department on classified roads, whose specification and traffic loads in most cases require compaction of the gravel layer.

The Challenge

The project operates a fleet of tractor-towed light equipment for road works. This equipment includes tractor-towed trailers (designed in Kenya with support from ASIST2), water bowsers (from Tinto Ltd) and compaction rollers (project designed). When we commenced our operations in Lusaka we borrowed pedestrian vibrating rollers from the Provincial Road Engineer (PRE) in Lusaka. These rollers had been left behind by an earlier phased-out labour-based project. We also immediately placed an order for two new pedestrian vibrating rollers, assuming that this type of equipment must be well tested since it is widely used on labour-based projects. However, after only six months of use, they started having frequent breakdowns. These were caused by the unfamiliarity of the operators with the precision of operation and maintenance required, and a concomitant shortage of mechanics who were familiar with the complexity of the machine. A great deal of down time was also spent awaiting the arrival of spare parts ordered from Europe or South Africa at exorbitant prices for quick delivery. It should be understood that we do not have a country agent for this equipment and consequently there is neither a stock of spare parts nor mechanics in Zambia acquainted with pedestrian vibrating rollers.

It thus became very clear to the labour-based project staff that an alternative to this machine needed to be investigated. On the one hand, they recognised that a pedestrian vibrating roller provides a lot of flexibility to the work planner, and its use can be justified under certain circumstances. This is especially true when the agricultural tractor concept for towing of trailers, water bowsers etc. is not an option due to haulage distances beyond the economical use of tractors and trailers; or when the tractor would only be used for towing a roller. The pedestrian vibrating roller can also be justified on steep gradients, or when particular soil types cannot be economically compacted without a vibrating roller. But on the other hand, since Zambia is predominantly flat and blessed with reasonably good natural soils (except for areas in Western and North-western Provinces, which have very difficult sandy soils of the type often found in Botswana), pedestrian vibrating rollers were not considered essential. This is especially true for gravelling works on a contractor development programme where durability is essential in order to allow the emerging contractor to meet production targets and to be able to repay the equipment loan in a reasonable period of time.

The experiences outlined above are apparently also shared by other labour-based practitioners. They are areas of concern in many other countries and were very clearly expressed in a paper presented at the Fifth Regional Seminar for Labour-based Practitioners held in Ghana in April, 1996 by Henry Danso from the Department of Feeder Roads, Koforidua, Ghana. In his paper entitled Factors influencing the output of labour-based contractors in Ghana he states:

Meeting the Challenge

Needless to say we share the views of Eng Danso on this subject, and hence the need to develop an alternative to pedestrian vibrating rollers. In our Contractor Development Programme for rehabilitation contractors, we are using the platform method for rehabilitation works3. This means that compaction is sometimes required at four stages, subgrade, plug, camber formation, and gravelling. If 100% gravelling is required on a five metre wide carriageway, and if the production target is 2km per month, then 1,500m³ of gravel will have to be compacted per month in addition to the subgrade, plug, and camber formation. This totals 15,000m³ of gravel per year (ten months of production). In a project where the repayment period for a fleet of equipment on loan to the contractor has been set at four years, this amount of gravelling totals 60,000m³ over the four years. Moreover, in this scenario, it is assumed that no piece of equipment will be replaced during this four year period. Hence the need for well designed, very durable and appropriate equipment.

Admittedly, one has to be a much better work planner when using tractor-towed dead-weight rollers which have to share tractor time with trailers and bowsers, than if one has a number of pedestrian vibrating rollers at one's disposal. But with good daily planning of the use of the tractor, it is possible to maintain a good production even with a tractor-towed roller, if the tractor-shared operations are well planned. This means watering very late in the afternoon up to sunset in order for the gravel to retain its moisture over the night. Rolling then starts early in the morning with an ideal moisture content. Thereafter, the tractor is used for hauling of gravel, that is during the middle of the day. However, if the natural gravel contains sufficient moisture, it should be heaped along the road and not spread. In this way the gravel will retain its moisture while a sufficient quantity of material is piled up to justify bringing along the roller.

Roller design parameters

We were thus determined to design a tractor-towed dead-weight roller with good production capacity. It had to be very robust and with a higher weight to width roller ratio (linear load) than we had earlier seen used on labour-based projects. We had in mind a ratio of 3 tonnes per metre drum width. This would give a total ballasted weight of about 4.5 tonnes and, when empty, a weight of 1.5 tonnes. This would make it easy to transport.

We should like to mention here that the inspiration to design and locally manufacture this type of roller came from the Training Modules from Thailand, and from CTP 64 Pilot project on labour-based road construction and maintenance in Thailand – Compaction by labour compatible equipment by Lars Karlsson.

Roller (1): Single drum

The first roller was designed with the following dimensions/specifications:

Roller (2) Double drum

The second roller was designed based on the same basic compaction parameters but with rather different features as explained below:

Future Plans

We are also in the process of designing the following equipment:

• A low-bed trailer for transporting dead-weight rollers, of the same type as often used for transporting of pedestrian vibrating rollers.
• Transport wheels attached to the dead-weight rollers which can be folded up when not in use, as shown in Figure (2) below.
• A roller of the pad foot type, also to be provided with a vibration mechanism. However, the vibration would not be produced by a small petrol or diesel engine mounted on the roller, but by using the tractor's PTO combined with a specially designed eccentric to provide the vibration.
• A specially designed semi-low-bed trailer with drop sides to be towed by a flatbed truck for the transport of tractors, rollers, water bowsers, trailers etc. to our demonstration sites some distance from Lusaka.

Summary

This article is not meant to be a contribution to the debate on whether we need compaction equipment or not. Nor do we want to disparage other methods since we do appreciate that adequate compaction can be obtained in many different ways. The purpose of this article is to enlighten managers of rehabilitation contractor training programmes, and other labour-based practitioners, who have already decided that they need compaction equipment, about an alternative to the pedestrian vibrating-roller concept, in the shape of the dead-weight rollers described above.

As I mentioned earlier, we are not yet in a position to back up our development engineering work on appropriate equipment with complementary research since our tests were carried out on a production site. However, this should not give you sleepless nights, if you consider purchasing a dead-weight roller of the type described, since research carried out elsewhere, together with our production test results, provides sufficient guarantee of usefulness. This should be especially true for those of you who are engaged in training labour-based rehabilitation contractors. Such contractors typically have to produce about two kilometres of full rehabilitation of a feeder road per month, including 50% gravelling, in order to be able to repay the loan for equipment. Such loans may range from US$100,000 to US$150,000 over a four to five year period, and therefore a labour-based contractor is in dire need of equipment which is durable and which has low maintenance costs. To achieve a high rate of production, a roller should obviously to be matched with an agricultural tractor of a make widely available in the country of operation, with spare parts in stock and trained mechanics locally available (and not just in the capital city).

Furthermore, as indicated by David Stiedl in his article on compaction equipment in ASIST Bulletin No. 3 of August 1994, the way specifications are written has to be adapted to this type of appropriate compaction equipment (although this also applies to the pedestrian vibrating roller). This means that the required compaction rate described in the literature as BS- or AASHTO- should also be described in a more empirical way as for example the number of passes required with a given linear load for a given type of soil. This type of specification has already been introduced in Kenya for labour-based applications ,and is being introduced in Zambia. This means a change from performance specifications to method specifications and thus places more responsibility on the engineer. Relaxation of standards is an issue which shall have to be addressed by a successful contractor development programme, introducing intermediate technology equipment. Otherwise an emerging labour-based rehabilitation contractor will not be in a position to get his work approved and receive his monthly pay cheque when he is out of the protective environment of the project.

Seven dead-weight rollers based on the design of Roller (1) are being manufactured here in Lusaka, at a cost of US$ 3,259 per roller, for another ILO-managed labour-based project in the country. The only difference in design is that the width of the drum has been increased to 1,500mm. This is an ideal width for a five metre wide carriageway since it requires only four parallel bands with sufficient overlapping, at five passes per band, to be rolled. This roller can be transported on an ASIST-promoted trailer if a special low-bed trailer is not available.

All tractor-towed equipment used here in Zambia (apart from graders) is locally manufactured by mechanical engineering firms, thus providing the industry with an additional market. However, their existence is seriously threatened since they receive fewer orders from the mines nowadays, and many contractors bring in their equipment duty free under the privileges of donor-funded programmes. This situation has had an adverse effect on our development efforts.

On the other hand, we have received very encouraging moral support in our development efforts from ILO/ASIST in Nairobi. We are also very glad that MART, through their Equipment Challenge, has initiated a design competition for appropriate equipment. One of the categories is tractor-towed dead-weight rollers, which clearly indicates the need for this type of equipment.

References

Karlsson, Lars. 1987. Pilot project on labour-based road construction and maintenance in Thailand. Compaction by labour compatible equipment. CTP 64. Geneva, ILO

Stiedl, David. 1994. Compaction equipment. What is appropriate for labour-based works? ASIST Bulletin No. 3, August 1994.

Danso, Henry. 1996. Factors influencing the output of labour-based contractors in Ghana. Paper presented at Fifth Regional Seminar held in Accra, Ghana in April 1996.

Andersson, Claes-Axel, Beusch, Andreas and Miles, Derek.1996. Road maintenance and regravelling (ROMAR) using labour-based methods. Handbook. Intermediate Technology Publications

Hand Tools in Urban Infrastructure Project in Addis Ababa

Tesfaye Kunbi, CARE Ethiopia, PO Box 4710, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Ethiopia is one of the least developed countries in the world. Constant urban migration to the capital of Addis Ababa over the past few years has resulted in an increasing number of urban residents living in extreme poverty. The Municipal Council of Addis Ababa estimates the current urban population at 3.0 million inhabitants. The majority of the city's population reside in severe slum conditions, lacking adequate housing and the provision of basic services (e.g. potable water, sanitation, roads, health facilities, etc). The present day economy offers little employment opportunities, especially for unskilled labourers, and although food is readily available in the capital, most families in marginal communities experience food deficits due to the lack of adequate income required to meet their basic food requirements.

The Community Infrastructure Development/Urban-Food-For-Work Programme was developed by CARE Ethiopia in 1993 in an effort to address the needs of the urban poor, specifically the lack of primary infrastructure and excessive unemployment within marginal urban communities in Addis Ababa. The programme consists of a series of community based public work projects utilising a food-for-work model in order to provide improved basic services and generate short term employment opportunities for residents living in less economically favoured neighbourhoods within the city limits. The project undertakes the construction of access roads and the provision of sanitation facilities and water supply as these are main concerns of target groups. A socio-economic survey of the total households in a community, targeted as beneficiary of the project is undertaken. This is followed by a task force committee for site selection. This task force is mainly composed of representatives from the municipality of Addis Ababa, the Commission for Disaster Prevention and Preparedness and CARE. The committee having gone through the economic survey results, and visited the target communities, come up with lists of communities to be addressed by the project. The involvement of community members through labour-inputs is encouraged, alternatively a 5 - 10% financial contribution to the cost of construction materials is recommended. This is only to ensure that residents feel that they own the built infrastructure.

After having completed the basic documents like project design and cost estimation, budget allocation and sources, etc., the parties to be involved sign the agreements.

Project communities are encouraged to enrol the workforce from their own communities, however, if this is not possible, it is advised employ from neighbouring residential communities. The main actor besides CARE in the intervention is the Infrastructure Development Committee.

The committee takes over duties like management of project finance materials, and liaison of the project with government offices.

The construction materials required are provided by suppliers. Tenders for supply of construction materials to project sites are issued and evaluated by all parties involved in the project.

Workforces are paid based on the group outputs. There are fixed work targets set for every activity. Out of the group earnings skilled worker earn three rations, semi-skilled two rations and unskilled workers one ration day. One ration is equivalent to 3.5 kg of wheat and 175 gms of vegetable oil.

When project activities come to a close, the basic necessary tools are handed over to the committee to be used for maintenance purposes. A maintenance fund continues to be raised by community welfare associations and every household in the community. The project has built over 80kms of stone paved roads with an average width of 4.5m, 65 communal latrines to be used by 1,560 households, and eighth developed springs.

CARE is working along with local non-governmental organisations as partners with the aim of building their capacity. About 135 unskilled labourers have been promoted to skilled grade.

The urban food-for-work project is entirely funded by USAID. USAID allocates resources in the form of commodities (wheat and vegetable oil). Part of the vegetable oil is monetized to cover costs for construction materials, salaries and other expenses. The problems encountered are as follows.

To acquire a plot of land for an on-site sanitation scheme has become very difficult, owing to the government's policy on land ownership. Land is government property in Ethiopia. Facilitation of land permits in government offices has become a big challenge to the project.

After having set up the maintenance schedule and method, the project phases out. It is observed that committee members neglect their duties and as a result maintenance responsibilities are not respected. The project life in a single communities is up to one year only. The project participants, numbering around 215 become unemployed again, after the project phases out. Only a small number (2%) has success in obtaining jobs on other related activities.

The projects being undertaken in these marginal communities involve the application of hand tools to a higher degree, owing to the fact that construction of the infrastructure works (access roads, communal latrines, spring developments, clinics, etc) are labour intensive. Only in exceptional cases are mechanical machinery, like concrete vibrators, rollers, water pumps, etc., applied.

The hand tools that are commonly used in the activities are shovels, pickaxes, crow bars, hammers, saws, wheelbarrows, etc. These tools are manufactured in local factories. Their life span ranges from one to two years. Some of these tools (especially shovels and wheelbarrows) are found not to be hard enough to stand up to the anticipated service conditions nor ductile enough not to crack.

Investigations at local manufacturing factories revealed good reasons behind every cracked die, every spelled cutting edge, and every broken chisel. Once in a while, it is true that tools failures are caused by defective steel. But hazardous tool design, improper grinding and mechanical factors play a far greater role. Most frequent of all are failures due to faulty heat treatment.

It is highlighted that factors like good design, sound tool steel of the proper grade, correct heat treatment, proper grinding and proper application of the tools contribute to successful tool making. These fundamentals are like the links of a chain; a deficiency in any one of the elements, or links, leads to trouble. Each of the above mentioned factors must be given proper attention in order to achieve the best possible tool performance.

The cost of hand tools is about 3% of the total project, so a small investment in this element has a substantial impact on the productivity. Labour productivity is mainly influenced by effectiveness of organisation, supervision of labour-based activities, motivation of the workforce and the quality and efficiency of the tools used.

The quality of hand tools is entirely based on three factors: (a) efficiency (b) strength of the tool and (c) wear and durability. Investigations made in Kenya have shown that construction quality tools as compared with farm quality tools are more productive possibly because they were 25% lighter than the farm type. The main parameters involved are shape, size, weight and finish of the tool.

The strength of the farm tools was found to be inferior, mainly because of the lack of hardening of the steel. Using the correct grade of steel, medium-carbon, which allows hardening all the way throughout the tool (not just surface hardening) is important in achieving the strength to resist impact blows. The parameters are shape, size, material and heat treatment.

Another factor affecting labour productivity is the wear and damage of the cutting edges and working surfaces of the tools.

Workers benefit from having good quality hand tools in being able to complete work with less effort and in less time. They are also likely to be less fatigued and suffer fewer injuries such as blisters and muscles strains. There are, of course, significant benefits from reduced medical costs for the work force.

The following recommendations are made to promote the use of improved hand tools:

• create greater awareness of the importance of good quality hand tools to labour-based road works, particularly with procurement staff.
• present specifications in a more concise and readily accessible form. They also need to be backed up by simple tests that can be carried out on site to check that the tools comply with the specs. These consist of: a visual check on shape, dimensions and furnishings, as well as a blacksmith's test to identify the steel used
• co-ordinate markets within countries so that demand is sufficient to encourage ready availability of better quality tools.

I will now make a few points about some of the hand tools that we are using.

Axes

The lighter the axe is, the easier it is to use and since accuracy is more important than weight for most cutting jobs, the weight should not exceed 1kg. Axes are the tools of specialists, and a compromise in quality and or design can be disastrous.

We have in certain parts of the city compensated for the use of own axes. Pre-delivery check and bending tests are essential to weed out sub-standard brands.

Crowbars

‘Fake" crowbars made of reinforcement rods or other mild steel should not be considered for heavy construction work. Good quality (hexagonal) crowbars of a good steel grade are recommended.

Handrammers

Handramming has proved to be very difficult to control and is only recommended in connection with culvert laying or very small foundation works.

Shovels

The locally produced shovels proved totally inadequate with a blade that could easily be bent by hand. It is recommended that shovels be fitted with wooden handles of suitable length. The length of the handle for throwing or loading of trucks, should be at least 1.2m.

Although specifications are useful, it is sometimes not possible to carry out the necessary testing before delivery, and in such cases one has to rely on well-proven brand names/manufacturers.

The procurement of tools should be done well before the start of a project. This makes it necessary to provide separate (and faster) funding for the tools. This will also call for secure storage of the tools and it is recommended that a strict stores inventory system is enforced.

Hand Tools in Labour-based Works: Some Notes for Consideration

Yaw A. Tuffour, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

Summary

Lack of good quality and adequate supply of hand tools on labour-based work sites is a common problem that bedevils many labour-based construction projects. Hand tools constitute the driving force for productivity in labour-based works and are often the most critical items to consider when it comes to the progress of construction. Compared with the investment in capital equipment in capital-intensive works, the capital outlay for investment in hand tools in labour-based works represents only a small proportion of the total project cost. Ironically, however, it is in hand tools that many labour-based practitioners and contractors hardly direct any investments because the supply of tools and capital provision for their supply are not perceived as important issues. In this paper, issues pertaining to hand tools in regard to quality, supply and management and the importance of hand tools in labour-based works in general are discussed.

Introduction

In labour-based construction, hand tools are the major items employed by labour for productivity. Whereas it is possible to construct roads using labour and hand tools without equipment, it does not appear possible to do so with labour and equipment without hand tools (Makoriwa, 1993). In effect, hand tools represent the driving force for productivity in labour-based construction. A unique aspect of labour-based construction is that compared to the investment in capital equipment for capital-intensive works, the capital outlay for investment in hand tools for labour-based works represents only a small proportion of the total project cost.

Fortunately for labour-based works, hand tools do not usually pose procurement problems because unlike capital equipment which for developing countries must be imported specifically for the construction industry and under special order, hand tools employed on labour-based works are simple tools developed primarily for the agricultural sector and which for many developing countries may be locally purchased. In some developing countries with an intermediate technology base, hand tools may be easily manufactured by local artisans. Although hand tools are crucial to the successful execution of labour-based works, many practitioners and contractors associated with labour-based construction technology do not appear to give hand tools the attention that they deserve.

The progress of labour-based projects can be slowed down if construction problems associated with hand tools are persistently ignored or left unresolved. In a study of the performance of selected labour-based contractors in Ghana, some of the major factors observed to hamper progress of construction at various contractor sites related to hand tools. On some construction sites, it was common to find tools questionable quality, tools with broken handles or tools in a completely worn-out state being used. The most serious tool problem requiring urgent attention related to supply. It was not uncommon to find workers chasing after tools at the beginning of the workday.

On one contractor site, inadequate supply of tools compelled workers to supplement tools on site with hand tools brought from their homes. Obviously, in situations where there is a lack of such goodwill and co-operation on the part of workers, worker output could be very low as a good proportion of workers spend a significant proportion of the available man-hours idling or waiting for a given type of hand tool to become available. Even on some construction sites where most of the tools were found in a satisfactory state or were available in sufficient quantities, there was no evidence of a proper set-up for effective tool management. Such situations could easily give rise to problems such as tool loss and pilfering which would call for frequent replacement and replenishment of stock. In a typical case, for example, a contractor kept his tools in a private kitchen in one of the villages along the construction route. This allowed pilfering of tools to go unnoticed and unchecked as workers who went for the tools at the beginning of the day were not accountable to anyone for their return at the end of the day. This seemingly isolated case epitomises the general lack of appreciation of the importance and relevance of hand tools in labour-based works and the need to take the issue of hand tools very seriously.

Despite the direct and obvious link between hand tools and productivity, many labour-based practitioners have failed to direct the needed investments to hand tools. In this paper, the issue of hand tools is discussed. The focus is on tool quality and quantity. Some titbits on general tool management are presented to help labour-based practitioners practise effective and efficient tool management for their works.

Tool Quality and Supply

Quality and quantity are two attributes that rarely go together in many real life situations, but when it comes to hand tools in labour-based works, it is important and necessary that tools of the right quality be in the right quantities at the right time. Tool condition is usually placed in three quality rating categories, namely; excellent (T3), satisfactory but needing some attention for improvement (T2), and unsatisfactory or defective needing replacement (T1). An indication of the tool supply situation can be obtained through the tool availability ratio defined as the ratio of the number of tools available for a given task to the number of labourers assigned to that task. The ratio in a sense measures the probability that a worker assigned to a particular task will have the necessary tool to work with as and when required. Obviously, the tool supply situation in respect of a given tool for a given activity is satisfactory if the tool ratio is at least unity. In gang work with several sub-activities, such as for example, excavation and loading of gravel, which requires several different hand tools to execute, the tool ratio concept must be interpreted to mean the availability of all the needed tools for all the sub-activities such that each and every worker within the gang or group will have a tool to work with as and when needed.

Table 1 provides an overview of the general tool situation on a number of labour-based construction sites in Ghana. A tool situation worse than that provided by the table is unlikely to result in productive output on site and may require intervention on the part of management to raise productivity levels. In the case of tool quality, simple interventions like smoothening of handles and sharpening of tool heads may be all that is needed to restore tool quality and improve worker efficiency and output. In many cases, this action is seldom carried out allowing tool quality to deteriorate to unacceptably poor levels.

Neglect of tool quality and stock replenishment are likely to result in the following major costs to both the worker and his employer (labour-based contractor):

• increased worker fatigue
• low worker efficiency
• low productivity
• poor quality work
• reduced worker earnings
• increased worker time input
• increased idle time
• disruption of work schedule
• reduced flexibility associated with piece- and task-work systems in accommodating other worker obligations and interests such as farming activities.
• delay in project completion.

In the case of loss of the flexibility associated with the task- and piecework systems, labour-based activities in areas with predominantly agricultural activities could lose out to agricultural activities for labour during periods of intense and heightened farming activities. Experience shows that labour in such areas is only willing to accommodate labour-based activities alongside their farming commitments in so far as the system of work contract between the worker and the contractor in the labour-based works pays on the basis of "finish-and-go" rather than "by-day". If due to poor quality and non-availability of the right tools at the time when they are needed workers will have to spend a greater part of the day on their piecework or taskwork to the detriment of their farming commitments, or if at the end of the work they feel fatigued and exhausted, they are unlikely to consider their participation in the labour-based works as of any benefit to either their short- or long-term interests.

Table 1. A typical tool situation on labour-based site in Ghana

R¹=Tool ratio-defined as the number of tools available for task to number of workers assigned on task. R<1 indicates insufficient quantity of tools

T1: Both tool handle and tool head are worn out. Replacement required.

T2: Condition of tool is such that sharpening of head or smoothening of handle will greatly improve its efficiency.

T3:Excellent condition, virtually no defect visible.

Tool Management

Labour-based works may be executed much more efficiently and successfully if proper and effective tool management is practised. The essence of tool management is to ensure that the right type of tool in the right condition is available at the right time for executing a given activity. Improper tool management may create supply problems and impede the speed of the construction. In some cases, it may require additional investment in tools as the available stock is depleted through theft from lack of proper control and care.

For proper tool management, it may be necessary to assign the responsibility of hand tools for site activities to a supervisor or personnel who may be designated the tools manager. The tools manager must be charged with the following responsibilities:

• keeping a daily record of tools issued out for site activities and returned at the end of the work day
• keeping a periodic inventory of tools
• drawing up a programme for the quantity and type of tools required at all stages of construction
• advising on the storage arrangements to protect wooden tool handles from fungi and termite attack
• providing a periodic update of the state of tools regarding both quality and quantity for the attention of the contractor
• monitoring the rate of tool wear, breakage, and loss
• establishing preferences of the local labour in the use of the different types of hand tools
• identifying and providing a list of changes needed to be made in future orders of hand tools regarding, for example, brand and type
• where tool replenishment or replacement is anticipated he must pass the information on to the contractor for purchases to be carried out ahead of time of anticipated need
• drawing up a programme for periodic restoration of or improvement in the quality of tools through sharpening of tool head and smoothening of handles

Because labour-based activities are organised under supervisors and gang leaders, it is considered much more efficient to deal with supervisors and/or gang leaders rather than the individual workers regarding matters of hand tools for the daily activities. Supervisors or their gang leaders must be responsible for signing for tools for co-workers within their gang or under their supervision and ensuring their return to the tool manager at the end of each work day. The incidence of tool theft can be minimised considerably if the cost of a missing tool is charged against the supervisor or the workers within a gang responsible for the missing tool. This policy must be made clear to all workers by the tool manager, or the contractor or his representative on site to ensure full co-operation of all workers in controlling tool loss and theft. There must be a buffer stock of tools so that damaged tools can be replaced immediately when necessary and/or losses catered for to avoid disruption of certain site activities.

Tool managers must not deal directly with individual workers unless a worker has some useful information to provide for the general attention of the tool manager in regard, for example, to the difficulty of use of a given brand and type of tool, which information may be useful for guiding future investments in tools.

Why the Low Investments in Hand Tools?

Non-availability of good quality tools on the local market, incompetent purchasing officers and importation restrictions are some of the reasons put forward to explain the low investment in hand tools or the deplorable state of hand tools on many labour-based construction sites (Makoriwa, 1993). Even though some of these reasons may be tenable in certain cases, in most cases, the main reason for the hand tool situation seems to be the fact that the supply of tools and capital provision for their supply are not perceived as important issues (Howe, 1988). This appears to explain why, for example, some years after embracing the labour-based technology, a number of countries with the potential to manufacture hand tools comparable in quality to those from overseas sources have not formulated any coherent strategy for the manufacture of hand tools locally and continue to depend on overseas sources for supply.

There appears to be another dimension to the problem of low investment in hand tools; it is thought that perhaps the types of work contracts practised in labour-based works (most of which are task- or piece-rate systems) in themselves do not provide adequate incentive for the employer/contractor to invest adequately in hand tools. After all, for such types of contracts, the onus of getting the job accomplished in order to earn the associated benefits (wage) is on the labourer. It is very easy in such cases for the contractor to shirk his moral responsibility of facilitating the execution of the contract (in this case a taskwork or piecework) for the worker by ensuring that the right set of tools is made available to the worker at the right time.

According to Howe (1988), the general problem of low investments in hand tools may be addressed by creating a greater awareness at all levels of how crucial good quality tools in sufficient quantities are to road improvement and maintenance by the labour-based technology. An effective way to do this is to organise national workshops on the subject periodically. Whatever the case, it must be clear to all labour-based contractors and practitioners that there are no alternatives to investments in hand tools in the labour-based technology and that such investments serve the interests of such stakeholders better.

Conclusions

This paper looked at the investment in hand tools by labour-based contractors/practitioners. It noted and discussed the effects of tool quality and quantity on productivity and the general progress of labour-based works. Basic aspects of tool management were presented for the consideration of labour-based contractors and practitioners. The poor investments in hand tools characterising the labour-based industry are attributed to the fact that the supply of tools and capital provision for their supply are not perceived as important issues by stakeholders in the industry. It is also thought that because the type of work contract practised in labour-based works is mostly task- or piece-rate systems, there is very little incentive for the contractor to provide the necessary tools to facilitate the execution of the contracted activities by the labour-based worker. To address these problems, it is thought that a greater awareness needs to be created of the importance of investments in hand tools in labour-based works through local and national workshops on the matter. Finally, it is stressed to all stakeholders in the industry that there are no alternatives to hand tools in labour-based technology.

References

Howe, J. 1988. Ghana feeder roads project construction hand tools study. World Employment Programme, CTP 86, ILO, Geneva

Makoriwa, C. 1993. Hand tools and equipment- The current scene. Report of Proceedings, 3^rd Regional Seminar on Labour-based Technology, Harare, Zimbabwe, October 1993. ILO, Nairobi

Footnotes

1 Force account: Road authority carrying out works using its own permanent manpower and equipment fleet.

2 See Designs and specifications for a standard trailer and hitch for labour-based works, ILO/ASIST, 1996

3 This involves forming a level platform (the subgrade) before excavating the drains, and the inner and outer slopes, to build up the road pavement in stages. The first stage is to form a "plug" in the centre of the road by excavating material from the side drains. This plug will generally be half the height (at the centre) of the final camber.

4 ILO/ASIST Technical Enquiry Service, PO Box 60598, Nairobi, Kenya; Tel +254-2-560941; Fax+254-2-566234; E-mail: iloasist@iloasist.or.ke