Gender Promotion Programme: Employment Sector

Executive Summary
The Role of Trade Unions in Promoting Gender Equality and Protecting Vulnerable Women Workers
First Report of the ILO-ICFTU Survey

Executive Summary also available in French

1. Aims of the report and its information base

In many countries, women now account for close to half the labour force. But quantitative increases in female labour force participation have not been matched by qualitative improvements -- "the quality of jobs which many women hold, particularly in developing countries, is as poor as the attention that is given to their right to organize in order to defend themselves better". Occupational segregation persists; the glass ceiling is cracked but not broken; pay inequity remains; the majority of women are in "female jobs" characterized by irregular status, insecurity, low pay, and often serious occupational safety and health hazards; and women still shoulder the bulk of family responsibilities. The Asian financial crisis and the spreading effects of the economic and political turmoil appear to have been disproportionately adverse on women. Also, freedom of association is under greater threat in troubled economic times; examples abound of both overt and more subtle forms of violation of trade union rights and there is evidence that such violations tend to be more serious for women than for men.

The trade union movement's response to these challenges is critical, in terms of their ability to meet the needs of women workers and, more generally, to play an effective role in social dialogue and social action in the context of globalization. The concern for promoting gender equality and protecting vulnerable women workers can provide common grounds for trade unions to forge alliances with new social actors at the local, national and international levels, to display their relevance in the rapidly changing economic and social order, and, thereby, to raise their profile and enhance their influence.

This report describes what trade unions are doing to promote gender equality within their own internal structures, at the workplace, and in the broader society at local, national and international levels. It addresses the impact of globalization and recent changes in the labour market on the ability of unions to organize workers. Particular attention is given to innovative efforts by unions to organize atypical or "hard to organize" women workers, and to forge national and international alliances with other civil groups and organizations on the basis of gender concerns.

The information for the report was gathered through an active partnership effort by the ILO's International Programme on More and Better Jobs for Women (WOMEMP), the ILO's Bureau for Workers' Activities (ACTRAV) and the Women's Committee of the International Confederation Of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU). A major objective of WOMEMP is to promote more effective and sustainable policies and programmes and good practice for enhancing gender equality. For both the ILO and the ICFTU, this activity forms part of the organization's follow-up to the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, and is expected to provide useful inputs to the Beijing +5 discussions in the year 2000. For the ICFTU, it also contributes to implementation of the Programme of Action for the Integration of Women into Trade Union Organizations, and will serve as a basis for discussions at the 7^th ICFTU World Women's Conference (Rio de Janeiro, May 1999).

The main source of information was specially designed questionnaires ⁽¹⁾ which were sent to all affiliates of the ICFTU and to the International Trade Secretariats (ITSs) in late 1998. Some of the ITSs, such as the Public Services International (PSI) and the International Metalworkers Federation (IMF) also forwarded the questionnaires to their affiliates. Many of the questionnaire answers were pre-coded, but the national centres and local unions were also encouraged to attach additional documentation -- reports, pamphlets, descriptions of the functions of the women's unit, constitution of the union, collective bargaining agreements, publicity briefs, newsletters, etc. To supplement the questionnaires, case studies were conducted in several countries. Replies to the questionnaires are still coming in, but this report is limited to the information received up to 31 March 1999.

A total of 217 completed questionnaires were received from 57 national centres and 160 trade unions. The breakdown by region is shown in Table 1, indicating that roughly half the sample is from developed, industrialized countries, and the other half is from developing and transition countries. The unions represent a very wide range of sectors and occupations, some male- and some female-dominated.

2. The position of women in trade unions

Of the unions surveyed, a greater number reported a decrease, rather than an increase, in total membership since 1995. Where there have been increases, women are much more likely than men to account for these, or conversely, the fall in membership is more likely to be attributable to men than to women (Table 2). Female membership has been rising mainly because women make up the bulk of the increase in the workforce or there have been specific recruitment drives or publicity campaigns targeted at them.

However, women still join unions in fewer numbers than do men (Table 3). In almost a third of the unions, less than 30 per cent of the members are women; and in 60 per cent of the unions, less than half of the members are women. But the majority of unions claim that their female membership is equal to, or greater than, their proportion in the labour force (Table 4). It therefore appears that the overall low representation of women in unions may be largely due to their relatively lower participation in the regular labour force as compared to men.

Women do not have proportional representation in trade union leadership. Women account for less than a third of the highest decision-making body in over 60 per cent of the unions surveyed. In fact, 7 per cent of the unions do not have a single woman in the highest decision-making body (Table 3).

Table 5 and Box 1 show the factors preventing women from becoming union members. The most commonly cited factor, and also the factor most often identified as most significant, is that women do not understand how unions can help them -- implying that unions still have a major publicity task to improve their public image and to raise awareness among women workers of the benefits of trade unionism. Such sensitization efforts are also needed because many women lack the education or self-confidence to join. Another commonly identified factor is that women do not have time to join unions because of conflicting family responsibilities. They often also face objections from their spouses or families, or there are religious or cultural constraints. In the work environment, particularly in export-oriented industries but also many public services, the most significant constraint is that women fear reprisals by employers (including losing their jobs). Since women are increasingly in atypical forms of work, they tend to be more difficult to reach and organize. In addition, the male-dominated culture or activities of a union or hostile reactions from male members often discourage women from joining. Several unions also identified high membership dues as a barrier.

More than three-quarters of the trade unions and 86 per cent of the national centres claim that female members participate in all union activities, rather than being confined to some or only women-specific activities (Table 6). But about a third of both the unions and national centres feel that women members are less involved in union activities than the men (Table 7).

3. Promoting gender equality within union structures

Some 43 per cent of the local unions and over two-thirds of the national centres have undertaken special measures to recruit women members (Table 8).Many have adopted a multi-pronged approach consisting of a range of strategies, over a period of time. The establishment of women's units is normally central to organizing efforts. Efforts to plan an intensive series of events in which women workers are encouraged to participate tend to yield successful results. Soliciting the views of the women workers, listening to their concerns and expectations in fora (such as women-only study circles) where they feel confident to express their opinions appear to be more effective strategies than merely informing them of their rights. Some unions stress the importance of creating a positive public image, through issuing frequent press releases or information sheets on the union's activities. Where recruitment efforts have not been successful, unions cite lack of finances and expertise, the difficulties of reaching women workers in atypical forms of work and small enterprises, and also the hostility or lack of support from male union leaders.

Examples of recruitment measures targeting women are highlighted in Box 2. Some unions adopt an organizing model for mobilizing women members, with the emphasis on collective action as shown in Box 3. However, unions in many developing countries tend to rely on service provision as the recruitment strategy (Box 4) , by showing women in practical ways how unions can help them.

In line with the recommendations of the ICFTU Programme of Action for the Integration of Women into Trade Union Organizations, six out of every ten trade unions and seven out of every ten national centres reported having adopted some positive action to increase the participation of women in leadership positions. Table 9 shows that reserved/additional seats remain the preferred means of positive action, with double nominations being the least preferred measure. Box 5 elaborates some of these measures and also briefly describes other specific efforts, including statutory reforms, specific plans for achieving targets for women's representation, awareness raising, leadership training and regularly publishing statistics on progress. Failure of efforts taken in this regard are often attributed to such constraints as women's family responsibilities, the non-support of women leaders by other women; and the resistance of men.

Some 93 per cent of the national centres and 76 per cent of the trade unions reported having established some kind of internal structure to promote equality. About three-quarters of the national centres and half the trade unions have created equality/women's committees, a lower percentage of both have appointed equality/ women's officers and still fewer have created equality/women's departments (Table 10). These internal structures have been given statutory status by about half the national centres and trade unions, while the remainder have an advisory or consultative role (Table 11). Only about a third of national centres and trade unions report that the structures created have a significant influence on the highest decision-making body. Less than three-quarters of the equality/women's units receive regular financial allocations; and among these, less than half feel that the allocations are adequate (Table 12).

Unions also have other, less formal, measures to increase women's participation, such as ensuring that activities are conducted at times convenient for women to attend and that childcare facilities are available (Table 13 and Box 6),and giving frequent attention to gender issues in their publications, documentation, newsletters, official speeches, etc. (Table 14) A large number of the unions that reported women-specific activities evaluated them to be successful mainly because they directly meet the women's needs within and outside the workplace, allow the women to feel comfortable participating, help them to gain confidence, and make them feel that the union is relevant to them.

Perhaps the most common measure to promote solidarity between male and female members is gender awareness raising and equality training. Several unions reported specific events, such as courses on "Sisters and Brothers Working Together" and discussions on "machismo". Solidarity has also been built through involving women and men in joint campaigns on issues of common concern, such as on child labour, paid paternity leave, a "no democracy without balance" campaign to increase the number of women candidates in national elections, etc. One union, having observed a widespread problem where men are not realizing their full potential in relation to their educational achievements, formed a male caucus and is proposing to conduct a study on the problem.

4. Promoting gender equality at the workplace

In the past, many equality-related issues were treated as personal rather than collective concerns. But now unions are increasingly stressing the importance of promoting equality through the collective bargaining process (Box 7).

Over a third of the unions and more than half the national centres that participate in collective bargaining negotiations have adopted a specific policy on including women in collective bargaining teams (Table 15), and many have instituted training for women delegates in negotiation techniques and the preparation of negotiation documents. The extent to which women participate in collective bargaining, however, appears to vary considerably: some unions have quotas for women's participation; some stipulate that certain female office-bearers must be included in collective bargaining teams; yet others include women in collective bargaining only when there are issues perceived as being of particular concern to women. In general, where explicit policies have been adopted to include women in collective bargaining, these have been implemented successfully.

The issue included most often in collective agreements is that of maternity leave (Box 8). Those issues related to maternity (breast feeding, paternity leave, special rights for pregnant women, child care and parental leave) were rated as the most frequent issues for inclusion in agreements. Next to maternity protection, equal pay came a narrow second. More than a third of all unions and national centres have also negotiated a sexual harassment policy in their collective agreements. Where gender issues have not been included in agreements, it is often because they are already covered by legislation.

In the main, the gender issues included in agreements had been identified by both male and female members, rather than just by women (Table 16). Where the issue was raised mainly by one sex, it was more likely to be by women. The inclusion of certain gender issues in agreements had also been promoted by various other sources, including employers, women politicians, the national government, and by the matter having been raised through the filing of a grievance. The ICFTU, ITSs and national centres can also play an important role. The process for incorporating gender issues in collective bargaining normally includes the measures highlighted in Box 9.

Promoting gender equality at the workplace does not end once the collective agreement is signed. Of those with collective agreements, about 60 per cent of the unions and three-quarters of the national centres systematically monitor the implementation of collective bargaining provisions on gender equality (Table 17). Some of the monitoring procedures are informal or ad hoc, carried out by union leaders or when there are specific grievances. More systematic efforts at monitoring include regular reporting procedures and keeping statistics. In many cases, the monitoring covers implementation of the entire agreement, rather than just the equality provisions. However, in some cases there is specific attention to the gender clauses, with reporting to an external or higher body. Several unions also systematically collect gender-disaggregated statistics, so as to more closely monitor hiring, firing and promotions, participation in human resources development, and equal pay provisions.

In addition to collective bargaining, several other initiatives are highlighted in Box 10, which go a considerable way to improving women's working conditions and especially to reducing their family burdens. The tripartite nature of these initiatives is striking, as is the link between the promotion of equality in the workplace and the wider public role of unions. It is when unions are active in pushing for supportive legislation and in monitoring implementation of such legislation, in public awareness raising campaigns, in working closely with the government and employers and forging alliances with other civil groups that they tend to be most effective in promoting gender equality in the work environment.

5. Organizing the unorganized and protecting vulnerable women workers

About a fifth of the unions and a quarter of the national centres currently do not target "atypical" workers in their mobilization efforts (Table 18). But several more indicate future plans to do so because of the recognition that such workers are too large in numbers to ignore. Furthermore, unions are themselves concerned to change the perception that they represent only workers engaged in typical or standard forms of work. The most common groups of atypical workers targeted are (in decreasing order of the total number of unions and national centres indicating organizing efforts): temporary workers, trainees and apprentices, part-time workers, contract workers, casual workers, self-employed, homebased workers, teleworkers, and informal sector workers.

Organizing strategies targeting atypical workers are still not of high priority (Tables 19 and 20). Rather than organizing such workers, unions indicated that their approach should be to provide guidance, training and other support to enhance the capacity of such workers to organize themselves and to forge alliances with them. The< main problems faced by unions in organizing atypical workersinclude legal barriers, threat of reprisals by hostile employers, the lack of awareness of atypical workers of the benefits of unionization, resistance from "core" union members, and, importantly, the high cost of membership drives.

Where unions have given priority to organizing efforts for atypical workers, they have generally been successful. Some successful examples are summarized in Box 11, including: (a)reaching atypical workers and making them aware of their rights as workers and the benefits of unionization. Establishing contacts often requires trade unions to work with other community organizations and NGOs; and group activities planned around income-generating projects, education and training programmes, leisure, etc. tend to be the fora for raising workers' consciousness regarding collective action; (b) adopting a more holistic approach to organizing and providing special services to meet their needs, such as assistance to regularize their employment status, access to medical insurance, health funds, unemployment benefits, cooperatives, etc.; (c) changing union statutes or internal structures to accommodate atypical workers (Table 21). The constitutional amendments cover the right to membership, participation in negotiating teams, coverage in collective agreements and the provision of special services, while the structures include full-time organizers or special units; (d) including them in collective agreements (Table 21), either to overcome the disadvantages atypical workers suffer or to regularize their employment status; and (e) assisting them to form their own associations or unions.There are many examples of unions assisting such workers to build capacity for setting up their own organizations and then maintaining close ties with them.

As part of their moves to organize in diversity,"to share the table and create space", unions have been targeting women (and men) who are: young, old, migrant, with disabilities, indigenous or coloured, lesbians and gays. They also target particularly vulnerable groups of women such as those working in EPZs and domestic workers (Table 22 and Box 12). In defending the rights of these groups or providing direct assistance to them, trade unions come in direct contact with or work closely with other non-labour associations and NGOs. The causes of these vulnerable groups therefore represent important bases for trade unions to forge alliances with other organizations.

The fact that many unions have a department devoted to young persons and have budgeted programmes to organize them reflects their importance -- they represent the future of unions and are capable of great activism. Unions reach out to youths in schools, operate youth centres, provide job search assistance, offer counselling services including sexual harassment courses, etc. Unions also give attention to the elderly, particularly to protect those close to retirement from losing their jobs or to deal with the problems of retired workers. Some unions have action plans for persons with disabilities, including the elimination of discrimination through collective bargaining, special assistance programmes and awareness raising for members on disability issues. Unions have also been active in adopting policies on sexual orientation, setting up lesbian and gayactivist structures, creating awareness of L&G issues at the workplace and supporting international solidarity work. Although some of the concerns of indigenous and tribal peoples are outside the usual coverage of organized labour, some unions have begun to defend their rights, provide direct assistance to them and represent their concerns at appropriate international fora. A number of unions have set up special programmes to support international female migrant workerswho go into domestic service or the entertainment industry where they are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse by employers and unscrupulous agents. There are several examples of unions successfully assisting domestic workers, both international and local, to set up their own associations or unions; they have also lobbied for recognition of domestic workers in a country's labour code. Unions have also concentrated on assisting women in EPZs to form or join unions -- through solidarity actions, financial assistance (such as the social justice fund) or training and support for organizers. In many cases, because of the strength of multinational companies operating in the zones or government regulations limiting freedom of association, unions have had to rely on transnational alliances and action to support these EPZ workers.

6. Trade unions in a changing world: raising their profile and forging alliances

The recent developments in the world economy and labour market that pose a challenge, if not a threat, to union membership and influence are listed in Table 23 and Box 13. To meet these challenges and to reaffirm and strengthen their role among workers and in the civil society, unions have adopted various measures, as highlighted in Box 14, including: (a) building activism among women and men members- reminding them of why they are union members and revitalizing them through actively seeking their views and meeting their needs, involving them in action to improve working conditions and in public campaigns, etc.; (b) improving communications with members and the general public, so that they are more visible especially where they have been successful in their actions for workers; (c) strengthening their relationship with the media (Table 24) to get a positive message out and improve their public image; and (d) promoting community unionism - to foster strong partnerships between labour and the community to counter the dividing tactics of corporations and governments and strengthen public commitment to social justice.

Community unionism is an effective way to expand the union membership base, build solidarity across communities and different groups and keep the equality agenda going. To foster community unionism, the national centres and trade unions have been forging alliances (Table 25) - with other trade unions within the same sector, country or internationally, research and academic institutions, political organizations, religious groups and various NGOs which have traditionally been the competitors of trade unions. The range of national and international organizations with which trade unions have established linkages is illustrated in Box 15.

The variety of strategies that trade unions use to establish/strengthen contacts or build coalitionswith other groups or organizations is shown in Boxes 16 and 17. These strategies are more likely to be successful where there is: common cause for joint action and solidarity; mutual benefit to be derived; support of public opinion; ability to capitalize on support of consumers; an established structure or framework for alliances; mutual respect for the perspectives of different organizations; and a means to reach otherwise difficult-to-reach groups. Many unions make use of their particular expertise or experience and resources to build up community unionism, including helping NGOs to run education and training programmes, such as for women in the informal sector.

The unions were more likely to feel that it is easier to forge alliances on the basis of social or political issues other than gender (Table 26). Equality issues are apparently not considered as such "burning issues" as to be able to galvanize trade unions and other civil groups to come together for concerted joint action. The exceptions tend to be where there are added political dimensions - such as the promotion of a new equality law or getting women into political positions. The common grounds for unions to work with other groups include social concerns (health, education, environment, drugs, alcohol, crimes and violence, government cutbacks of social programmes, consumer protection), fundamental human rights (including rights for migrants, lesbians, gays and the disabled), and economic concerns (over growing unemployment, working conditions, social security benefits, inflation and purchasing power). These broad concerns indicate that unions are moving well beyond their traditional interests.

With increasing globalization and the spread of multinational enterprises, trade unions have been extending their strategies, activities, procedures and structures to new international dimensions (Box 17). Certainly, an important aspect of international cooperation is the potential for organizing effective international pressure in support of women workers in countries where they have been denied freedom of association or have been subject to serious exploitation by multinational enterprises. Especially since women are often the basis of cheap labour policies but have little or no recourse in relation to powerful multinational companies employing them, the support of international organized or coordinated efforts is often critical. Such international campaigns can involve a number of strategies, including: direct assistance to affiliate unions, training and education of new union members, lobbying for political support, organizing consumer boycotts of the products of the companies, coordinated media campaigns (including use of the Internet), etc. But, as Box 18 shows, although international action may persuade multinationals to adopt codes of conduct, such codes of conduct should not prevent them from taking part in social dialogue nor substitute for the right to freedom of association and collective bargaining.

7. Concluding remarks

Since the cut-off date for the preparation of this preliminary report, more completed questionnaires have been received. Further replies to the questionnaires and additional case studies are still encouraged and most welcome. They will all be analysed in a final report, and will also be incorporated in a manual of good practices that will highlight the types of measures that have proven successful or unsuccessful (and the reasons why) in promoting gender equality within unions, at the workplace and in the broader civil society, and the scope for adopting or replicating the measures in different parts of the world. It is hoped that the manual, which will be widely disseminated and publicized, will be a source of inspiration for unions and other organizations in the promotion of gender equality or, indeed, in formulating strategies to overcome other forms of discrimination and exclusion. This will hopefully assist in drawing global attention to the actual and potential role of trade unions as forces to bring about desirable social change.

It is important to conclude by emphasizing that this report is not intended to compare the performance of specific national centres or unions, and obviously does not capture the wealth of trade union activities and experiences. Its preliminary nature and information sources (particularly since survey questionnaires alone are often inadequate or provide very partial information) mean that there may be gaps and perhaps inaccuracies. Clarifications, comments, criticisms, ideas or additional information would, therefore, be much appreciated. Please do not hesitate to contact:

The Equality Department,
International Confedration of
Free Trade Unions,
Bd. Emile Jacqmain 155,
1210 Brussels, Belgium.
Tel: 32-2-224-0324
Fax: 32-2-201 5815/203 0756 E-mail: elsa.ramos@icftu.org

International Labour Office,
4 route des Morillons,
CH 1211, Geneva 22, Switzerland.

Tel: 41-22 799-6090
Fax: 41-22 799-7657
E-mail: genprom@ilo.org

Box 1
Single most important barrier to female membership in unions

1.	Lack of understanding of how unions can help them (17.3 per cent)
2.	Fear of reprisals from employers (15.8 per cent)
3.	Conflicting family responsibilities (15.0 per cent)
4.	Male-dominated culture/activities of the union (12.8 per cent)
5.	Women lack confidence to join unions (7.5 per cent)
6.	Religious/cultural norms and constraints (6.8 per cent)
7.	Union not sensitive to the special needs of women workers (6.0 per cent)
8.	Women are in atypical forms of work and therefore difficult to reach and organize (5.3 per cent)
9.	Women face objections from their spouses or families (4.5 per cent) Membership dues a problem (4.5 per cent)
10.	Media portrayal of unions has been negative (3.0 per cent)
11.	Legal constraints (1.5 per cent)

Box 2
Recruiting women members

Raising awareness of the benefits of unionization:

Intensive awareness raising activities (information kits, seminars, study circles) run by women unionists helped to show other women that participation in all union activities is welcomed and feasible (Côte d'Ivoire);
Awareness and recruitment campaign in a section of a major city involving distribution of an information booklet and the presence of union office-bearers; about 20 per cent of the women who asked for information subsequently joined (India);

Improving the public image of unions:

As part of its efforts to recruit part-time workers, the union widely publicized its equality victories thus identifying itself as a supporter of part-time workers and a champion of equality (United Kingdom);
The union uses its long history of support for health care, equal pay, childcare as an organizing tool (United States);

Making women visible in unions:

Enforcing a policy of 30 per cent representation of women in every major union bocy and delegation (including negotiating teams) (France);
Elected chairperson mandated to organize women's committees in all branches and act as educational coordinator, serves as a model for other female workers and involves men in the activities of the women's committees (Malawi);

Soliciting the views of women workers and understanding their concerns and needs:

Research by a national centre and dissemination of information on workers' needs including those of non-unionized workers; many affiliates were inspired to better respond to the needs of non-unionized women (Canada);
Holding study circles, conferences dealing with the concerns of women workers;

Providing services to meet the needs of women workers: (see also Box 4)

Inclusion of gender concerns -- equal pay, maternity benefits, sexual harassment policy, , etc. -- in collective agreements;
Special facilities for child care, cooperatives, income-generation, etc.
Specific education and training courses for women;

Special organizing campaigns: (see also Box 3)

A 1+1 campaign to recruit women workers in the garments sector, successful because each union member is responsible for recruiting a new member (Bangladesh);
SPUR (Special Programme Union Representatives): comprising both male and female rank and file members, have been successful -- because they are closer to other workers and there are more organizers available (Canada);
Union visited dressmaking and tailoring enterprises, met with employers, labour inspectors and local authorities; women workers became more confident and looked to the union for protection (Bulgaria);
Women's committee members went out to the market place and unorganized industrial sectors to talk to and influence women workers, relatively successful (Malaysia).
Training to enhance skills and practices of organizers assigned to the EPZs, including six months intensive field training and monthly assessments of trainees' activities (Philippines).

Box 3
Mobilizing women workers through organizing or servicing?

Organizing, education and action are the three vital components of the organizing model. You need the involvement of informed supportive members to get a good contract. The organizing model:

strengthens bargaining;
helps present a visible and credible threat of effective workplace actions;
prepares members and unions for possible collective activity;
fixes workplace problems;
mobilizes members for lobbying and political activity;
generates recruitment;
develops workplace leaders.

Organizing is about empowering workers to instigate and effect changes in their workplace. The model works for external organizing -- recruiting and organizing workers in non-union sites and also for internal organizing -- working with members and recruiting in workplaces that are largely unionized.

Servicing, on the other hand, is when you try to help people by solving problems for them. If union members see themselves as purchasing a service (or worse still, an insurance product) when they join a union, then their expectations cannot be met.

Unions require people to make collective, rather than individual choices, and to support these choices with action. In the long term a union can only achieve what the members are prepared to stand up and fight for.

Benefits of using the organizing model:

It is more effective. An employer is more likely to bargain if there is a clear indication that a large number of workers are involved and behind the union;
It gives members a sense of power as a group, by letting them share in the decisions and the victories;
It educates members about the nature of the dispute between the union and the employer;
The union gains power;
The organizing model enables a union to take on and solve more problems because more people are involved and available to help.

Source:

New Zealand Council of Trade Unions (1995), Organizing Women Workers Mobilizing women workers using the organizing model. Wellington, NZCTU.

Box 4
Recruiting women through providing services

As an organizing tool, some unions, particularly in developing countries, place emphasis on providing direct services to women. Such action is seen as necessary and important to address the specific needs of women and to help them understand in practical terms the benefits of unionization to them. Some of the types of services that unions have been providing as part of their organizing drives are:

In Benin, unions have projects for:
- staff cooperative whereby household goods (rice, soap) are bought in bulk to enable women members to buy them at lower prices;
- laundry services provided for working women in their neighbourhood to alleviate their heavy workload at work and in the home; this also creates employment for other women in the neighbourhood;
- providing childcare facilities near the main market for children of women vendors to facilitate breastfeeding, while allowing women to continue working;
- a women's theatre group which is helping to educate women not only on issues relating to unionization but also social issues such as family planning, health, education of girls, the disadvantages of polygamy. This is especially important because a majority of the women are illiterate.
In Congo, the CSTC has focussed on not only professional problems of women workers concerning equal pay, equal opportunities, professional qualifications and internships but also social problems linked to family life, health insurance.
In Kenya, COTU has special education programmes for women, income generating projects, self-help groups and cooperatives; "the women appreciate not having to worry about male domination or superior experts".
In Latvia, the Latvian Seafarers' Union of Merchant Fleet has arranged special insurance for the women, medical examinations , extra payment for maternity leave and childcare.
In the Philippines too, free medical consultations arranged by the TUC represented a relatively successful mobilizing tool, as the women were usually financially unable to seek medical attention.
In Thailand, the Labour Congress of Thailand, coordinates a scholarship fund to help children of retrenched workers to continue their education; the fund is contributed to by ICFTU-APRO and the Prime Minister's Office.

Box 5
Increasing the representation of women in leadership positions

Statutory reforms:

Union constitution is amended to provide for women's representation (reserved seats, quotas, targets, proportionality, etc.);
The women's chair is automatically a member of the Presidium at the national level and automatically the vice-president in some provinces, thus ensuring that women participate in decision-making at the highest level (Austria);
The women's committee has reserved seats on the executive committee (Japan)
The chair of the women's committee participates in collective bargaining and this has helped to increase the number of women in negotiating teams (Zimbabwe);

Specific targets and plans:

The union adopts and implements an equality plan;
The general board sets as a goal the proportional representation in the leading committees and consistently monitors progress (Denmark);
Bodies that cannot achieve representative gender proportions through elections must elaborate corrective mechanisms to reach this objective by stages (Belgium);

Awareness raising and publicity:

Target male-dominated unions through awareness raising campaigns on how proportional representation of women at all levels will benefit them and improve the image of the union;
Giving increased visibility to women leaders;
Using non-sexist language in all union documents;
Leadership by example, "a working mother but also a leader in the union" (Malaysia);
The union publishes annual figures on women's participation in the membership and leadership (Netherlands);

Education and leadership training:

Encouraging and providing funding to the women's committee to promote more active participation of women through education and training programmes;
Six-months leadership development programme for women to encourage their leadership role in the union and society (Bermuda);
The national centre has specific training for women leaders in its yearly educational programmes (Ecuador);

Meeting the specific needs of women:

Conducting union meetings in a more informal way to encourage wider participation and taking other steps to overcome barriers to women's participation (such as holding meetings during working hours, providing childcare, having paid time off for union activities);
Combining the electoral process (which is based on a proportionality policy with informal measures (such as women-only training) so as to get a critical mass of women in leadership positions and to "feminize" the face of the union (United Kingdom).

Box 6
Promoting more equal gender participation in union activities

Affirmative/Positive Measures:

Established quotas for training and education programmes;
Having women candidates in all elections;
System of double candidature (for the National Bureau of the Confederation, France);
Union equality plans;
Resolution on promotion of positive action, positive action plan (Italy, USA, Australia);
National project on "Every Other Seat for Ladies" (Sweden);
Charter on mixed structures (France)
Gender balance in representatives at national and international events (Gender equality in sponsorship: PSI);
Activities held at times convenient for women to attend;
Provision of childcare facilities for union activities;
Publicity campaign to encourage votes for women in political elections (Belgium)
Portion of certain union budgets reserved for gender projects (Belgium);
Women's caucus;
"Proportionality on elected bodies" (New Zealand);
Conference on mainstreaming (Denmark);
Adoption of report on access to equality by women in trade unions (Canada).

Women-Specific Measures:

Budgeted seminars for enhancing female participation, women-specific topics;
Study circles/groups on women's issues;
"Ask a Working Women Survey"(participation of 50,000 workers, USA);
Training days for women (on pensions, job classification, etc.) (Belgium);
Women's summer school, education council for women (UK)
Video on 1+1=Women's Power and gender awareness programme (ICFTU-APRO)
Women workers organizing campaign: 1+1 recruiting (Bangladesh);
Campaigns on violence and harassment at the workplace;
Skills training programme (Barbados);
Computer training for women (Pakistan);
Training in leadership, confidence building, time management (Philippines, UK);
Residential women activists training programme (Canada)
Commemorative day activities (8th March Women's Day, 6th December Violence against women, Mother's Day);
European Women's Network where women unionists meet annually;
Women's Working and Living Conditions Committee (Canada);
Research on working environment of women (Denmark);
Activities for female shop stewards;
Exhibition on "the competent woman" organized once a year (Finland);
Lunch-hour meetings to "feel the pulse of women's problems" (India);
Training on sexual harassment: "How to say no to your boss" (Croatia);
Health and safety for women (breast cancer, family planning, mothers' classes);
Distance learning for women who cannot attend because of family responsibilities (UK);
Toll free number for information on women and unions (USA);
Regional seminars and regional conferences by ITSs and ICFTU on women's issues.

Box 7
Gender equality bargaining is important because...

women's issues are gender issues
women's contributions at work have been undervalued
women are making up an increasing proportion of the paid workforce
it is important in changing attitudes towards women in employment
it can address many of the persisting deep-seated misconceptions about the role of women in employment
women's concerns have traditionally been overlooked in collective bargaining
legislative coverage may be inadequate
where there is legislation, it must be implemented in a practical manner
it addresses some non-pay issues that may be easier to bargain in difficult economic times
it is a means of attracting women to the union -- it shows the union is committed to women.

Collective bargaining can make a difference because women count!

Source: Olney, S. et al., 1998, Booklet 1, p.6.

Box 8
Gender issues included in collective agreements

(In order of frequency of inclusion by national centres and trade unions)

1 Maternity leave
2. Equal pay
3. Special rights for pregnant women
4. Paternal leave
5. Parental leave
6. Night work provisions
7. Child care
8. Sexual harassment policy
9. Breast feeding provisions
10. Family friendly policies
11. Vocational training for women
12. Positive/affirmative action policies

Box 9
Including gender issues in collective bargaining

Promote awareness and understanding of gender issues:

ensure that union education and training materials incorporate gender issues;
special campaigns and motivation efforts (tripartite forum on working life prior to negotiations);

Involve women in the negotiating teams

(so that they can play a key role in formulating demands and examining proposed clauses for discrimination);

Women's Department/officer is a member of the team;
quotas and other statutory means;
educate and train women members to effectively participate in negotiations;

Consult women and ensure that theirs voice are heard:

women leaders discuss with the union's executive committee the formulation of demands;
Women's Department/officer is expected to submit demands;
Joint committee set up for pre-negotiation discussions;
calling special meetings of women representatives from all departments

Make special efforts to get the views of all workers

(so as to ensure that needs are properly identified and prioritized):

reach women who are absent or silent at meetings by getting women shop stewards and those close to them to explain and determine their views;
send out circulars to all workers asking them to submit their views and demands;
send out a questionnaire, conduct research;
circulate draft agreement for comments;

Be well-prepared for negotiations:

do "homework" -- gather all the facts and statistics on the position of women in the workplace;
be well-versed with existing gender equality provisions in legislation, existing collective agreements, government policies, work rules, etc.;
have arguments to show employers and male union members that promoting gender equality is the smart thing to do -- in terms of costs and benefits, productivity, staff morale, public image of the company, etc

Follow-up:

publicize the work done by the union on behalf of women (as an organizing strategy);
regularly monitor the implementation;
publish statistics on progress made in implementation.

Box 10
Initiatives to promote gender equality at the workplace

Collective bargaining is the most important means of promoting gender equality in the workplace. But other initiatives -- not only by unions but also the government and employers -- can also make a significant difference:

Job evaluation schemes as the basis for determining equal pay (The Quebec government through its pay equity law requires employers with a majority of women workers to create a pay equity committee to evaluate the jobs; in Belgium, classification of jobs is done by a government department responsible for equality of opportunity; in Iceland BSRB has initiated an experiment with gender neutral job evaluation; in Croatia UATUC has pushed for gender disaggregated labour and social statistics);
A Return to Learn scheme in the United Kingdom to promote life-long learning. It was initiated by unions but is now conducted in conjunction with employers. 80 per cent of the participants are women;
Establishment of a national vocational training centre in the Philippines to improve women's skills: initiative by unions, employers together with the National Commission on the Role of Women and funded by the Japanese government;
Initiatives to deal with sexual harassment (in Belgium, guidelines on sexual harassment were government initiatives with inputs from the social partners; in the Philippines committees on decorum and investigation to follow up on the law on sexual harassment)
Balancing work and family responsibilities (FOA in Denmark has developed a steelworkers' guide to negotiating the balance of work and family responsibilities;
Provision of childcare facilities (creches set up by unions with either government, employer or community support and funding; babysitting services at home or the meeting place to enable women to attend courses, meetings, etc.; ensuring that there are childcare arrangements for each union course; payment of a childcare allowance by the union);
Workplace improvements (unions in Bangladesh have helped provide separate toilets, prayer rooms, restrooms, breastfeeding and other maternity facilities for women workers);
Other work-related benefits and facilities: right to tax deduction for single mothers; equalization of tax treatment in marriage; free medical checkups and family planning facilities; reforming discrimination in retirement benefits;
Special worker-employer initiatives ( in Norway, equal rights programme between LO and private sector employers organization; establishment of a joint committee of the union and concerned management on equal rights; occupational safety and health code);
Awareness raising on equality in the workplace: research on health and safety issues and violence against women; study circles on equality issues with support from international unions; ensuring that all education and training materials contain gender themes; joint statement by union and employer in collective agreement on importance of organizing joint education and training on equal opportunities at work;
Introduction of karaoke in the union staff room in the factory encouraged women to come forward and in turn gave them confidence to participate and speak at official union meetings (Malaysia).

Box 11
Organizing the unorganized

Publicity and awareness raising campaigns aimed at atypical workers:

motivation through awareness raising on the benefits of unionization;
wide publicity of union successes in favour of these workers;
"Unorganized to organized" campaign (Nepal)
information and advice on legal rights provided to atypical workers;
group activities planned around income-generating activities, education and training etc. as the forum for raising consciousness regarding collective actions;

Special outreach to atypical workers:

unions contact trainees and apprentices and involve them in activities (Bangladesh);
education and awareness raising to organize domestic workers into unions (India);
union provides occupational network for freelance workers who have no permanent employer or colleagues;
invitation to self-employed men and women to join (Sweden)

Changes in union statutes to open up membership:

changes in constitution to allow recruitment of such workers;
rules on mutual health and cooperatives changed to allow part-time workers to become members (Japan);
adoption of union policy not to differentiate between workers with differing work patterns (New Zealand);
subscription rates according to income levels (UK);

Changes in union internal structures and arrangements:

full-time organizer with union mandate to give priority to organizing atypical workers;
SPUR (Special Programme Union Representatives) (Canada) where rank and file members, men and women, help to organize many groups;
rural workers organization department (Ghana, Ecuador);
secretariat for rural workers and indigenous issues (Panama);
part-time/temporary workers have a separate branch with a representative on the national executive committee meetings (Ireland);
secretariat for informal sector (Benin);

Special services made available to atypical workers:

atypical workers can apply to an unemployment fund (Finland);
efforts to regularize the services of atypical workers when there are vacancies for permanent posts in the public sector (Pakistan);
negotiations to recruit workers with regular status and benefits and for contract workers to become permanent, casual workers to be paid double rates (Zimbabwe);
negotiation of contracts for home care workers (USA);

Inclusion of atypical workers in collective bargaining agreements:

"single status" bargaining agreements (UK);
"Positive Part-Time Campaign" to negotiate recognition agreements with agencies which employ such workers (UK);
Flexible Workers Campaigns (Netherlands);
part-time employees have their own bargaining unit or positions in the bargaining committee (Canada);
full collective agreement coverage (Denmark);
provision in collective agreement regulating how long workers can be employed on a temporary basis before becoming permanent;

Assistance to atypical workers to form their own associations/unions:

capacity building for establishing a national coalition of informal sector workers (Philippines)
Association of self-employed workers (Quebec);
union for temporary workers (Japan);
organization of women's cooperatives as first step towards unionization (Benin).

Box 12
Organizing in diversity

Youths

Reaching out to schools (insurance for students, union-organized activities for students);
Women's department gives advice weekly to young women, including on personal problems (Austria);
Integration of young unemployed women in training programmes (Cameroon);
Job search assistance (Bulgaria, Finland)
operation of a youth centre (Latvia);
union youth committee/department (many countries);
budgeted programme to encourage young workers to join union (New Zealand);
young workers workshop to discuss sexual harassment (Belize, Taiwan).

Older workers

older and retired workers organized in mutual assistance association (Cote d'Ivoire);
lobbying for legal protection for workers over 50 years of age (Slovakia);
union department to deal with retired workers (Poland);
protection from losing jobs/social guarantees just before retirement (Czech Republic, Finland, Latvia);
policy against age discrimination (UK).

Workers with disabilities

union department/representative to deal with disabled workers (Argentina, Austria, Poland; USA);
union action plan for persons with disabilities (Canada);
management and union negotiated an insurance scheme (Belize);
scholarships for disabled workers to study abroad (Cote d'Ivoire);
disablement advisory network (United Kingdom).

Lesbians and gays

development of a kit on L&G that trade unionists can use to organize them(PSI);
adoption of union policy on sexual orientation (Canada);
Committee for gays and lesbians (Canada, USA)
national conference for gay men and lesbians (Canada);
recognition for the rights of partners (Canada).

Indigenous

national conference for Aboriginals and workers of colour (Canada);
organization of indigenous, rural and informal sector workers (Ecuador);
budgeted targeted activity for Maoris (New Zealand).

Migrant workers

assistance to migrant women regarding professional education (Austria);
local union divisions provide assistance to migrant workers (Italy, Denmark, Norway);
provision of training in migrant centres (Finland);
assistance to migrant prostitutes (Italy);
livelihood programmes and cooperatives (Philippines).

Domestic workers

union support for NGO defending the rights of domestic workers (Canada);
petitioning Parliament for recognition of domestic workers under Industrial Relations Act (Trinidad and Tobago);
overseas domestic workers invited to join union, which campaigned together with an NGO for the government to recognize their right to change employers, regularize their migration status (UK).

Women in EPZs

assistance for formation of a union (Bangladesh, Philippines);
union and social benefits coverage (Argentina);
social justice fund works with women in EPZs to help them unionize (Canada)
strike action on behalf of EPZ workers (Chile).

Box 13
Most serious challenge to union efforts to organize and represent workers

1. Globalization trends (19.0 per cent)
2. Privatization and downsizing of the public sector (18.7 per cent)
3. Rising unemployment levels (17.9 per cent)
4. Legislative constraints (10.7 per cent)
5. Increase in the number of "atypical" workers ((9.1 per cent)
6. Impact of the financial crisis (7.5 per cent)
7. Growth of small and medium size enterprises (5.2 per cent)
NGOs gaining in relative influence (5.2 per cent)
9. Growth of the informal sector (2.4 per cent)
Increase in female labour force participation (2.4 per cent)
11. Changes in communication and production technologies (2.0 per cent).

Box 14
Reaffirming and strengthening the role of unions

re-evoke the sense of the "why" of unionism among the unionized, so as to counter the sense of threat and fear expressed by many members, especially female members;
strengthen the solidarity roots: to "reorganize the organized" or to "re-energize the membership" -- to galvanize members for action around issues of common concern, in particular social justice issues, including exploitation of women workers;
get the message out to potential members to help them understand and appreciate the benefits of unionism and to realize that unionization is a present reality not a thing of the past;
develop "community unionism", not only as a means of "organizing the unorganized" but also to build partnerships between labour and the community to forge alliances with other social groups and to promote the equality agenda;
promote international solidarity -- the struggle for workers' rights and women's rights is a global one and has to be tackled by coalitions and networking among unions and with other groups at national, regional and international levels;
strengthen technical cooperation -- unions in developed countries can provide education and training programmes for union members, particularly women members in poor developing countries.

Box 15 ITS-NGO Relations (PSI)
Name of NGO	Field of Interest
Trade Union and Human Rights
Amnesty International	Human Rights
International Labour Rights Fund	Labour Rights Research
Human Rights Network	Human Rights
Discrimination
Gladnet	Disability
International Lesbian and Gay Association	Lesbian and gay issues
Migrant Workers
World Council of Churches	Migrant workers Rights
Women's International League for Peace and Freedom	Migrant workers rights, women and peace issues
Human Rights Watch	Human Rights and Migrants
International Council of Jurors	Migrant Workers Rights
Migrant Rights Watch Committee	Migrant Rights
Development Cooperation
Trade Union International Research and Education Group (TUIREG)	Research and Education
TUTA	Trade Union Training
International Federation of Workers Education Associations (IFWEA)	Education
Development
Global Policy Forum	UN Policies
Bretton Woods Project	BWIs
Third World Network	Globalization
Environment
Environmental Defence Fund	Environmental Issues
Gender Issues
Global March of Women 2000	Women, Poverty and Violence
NGO Forum - Commission on Status of Women	Women
Public Sector Research
International Labour Resource and Information Group (ILRIG)	Labour Service Organisation
Trade Union Research Project (TURP)	Labour Service Organisation
Public Sector Research Centre	Public Sector Research
Debt
European Network for Debt and Development (EURODAD)	Debt and Development Issues
Development Gap	Debt Issues
Jubilee 2000	Debt Issues
Bank Information Centre	Debt Issues
Focus on the Global South	Debt, development, Globalization
Codes of Labour Practice and Corporate Responsibility
SOLIDAR	WTO, Social Clause, Devt. Issues
Trade
International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development	WTO Issues
Economic and Social Policy
Global Action on Aging	Elderly Issues
Economic Policy Institute	Economics
General
Conference of NGO's (CONGO)	NGO Networking
International Federation of Social Workers

Box 16
Forging national alliances between trade unions
and other civil groups and organizations

Trade unions pass convention resolution to support community-based coalitions and to work with NGOs on social policy issues;
Creation of a department within the national centre in charge of relations with state institutions;
Women's Committee of the national centre is a member of the national Women's Council;
Exchange of information and cooperation with other unions through labour councils;
Local unions jointly prepared for the Fourth World Conference on Women;
Working with other unions, local groups and government agencies for the formulation or enforcement of a new Equal Opportunity Act in the country;
Issues-based national alliances, eg. on privatization, dealing with structural adjustment programmes, tax and political reforms, visiting forces agreement, assistance to migrant workers, violence against women and children, detained workers;
Participation in national campaigns on environmental issues, daycare trust, violence against women at home and in the workplace, protection of single mothers;
Involvement in national women's day events;
Women's committee of the trade union has set up special projects for cooperatives, which are open also to the wives of workers and out-of-school youth;
Coalition projects with NGOs : Informal Sector Coalition Project, Delivery of Justice to Disadvantaged Women Coalition Project, Justice Coalition Project, etc.;
Regular meetings with community-based organizations working on women's issues – sexual harassment, violence, migrant women, etc. – during which success stories are discussed;
Working with other unions, religious groups, women's groups, political parties, NGOs on legal reform, including a new law on atypical work;
"Democracy Platform" alliance with political organizations, research and academic community, youth groups, etc;
Coalition of unions and community groups to maintain and upgrade public healthcare system;
Together with other civil groups, jointly issuing press releases, communiques on sexual harassment; etc.;
Linking with universities, political parties, NGOs to train women for insertion into politics;
Collaboration with academic institutions to conduct surveys, carry out research and produce literature on particular labour issues;
Participation in science and technology conferences so that union can keep abreast of new information technologies;
Collaboration with religious organizations through the sale of books, etc. for the poor;
Setting up of non-formal schools for child labour;
Initiating, sponsoring or participating in joint workshops, seminars, public debates, eg. with student organizations, lawyers's associations, etc. on women's issues;
Providing union materials for educational/training workshops run by other organizations;
Sponsoring study circles and training of trainers for raising awareness of women's worth, competence, potential to play key roles in unions, etc.;
Trade unions provide financial assistance for specific campaigns organized by other civil groups and also to support NGOs in the informal sector;
Supporting other unions and civil groups in demonstrations, days of action, lobbying the government, common policy groups on equality etc.;
Having a booth at national NGO fair, so that there is wider publicity for union activities and dissemination of union materials.

Box 17
Promoting equality and protecting vulnerable workers
through transnational cooperation

ITSs and international confederations:

bringing together national unions of the subsidiaries of multinationals into formal or informal committees to exchange information and share experiences or to prepare for talks with the central management of the company concerned;
transnational collective agreements (eg. between IUF and the Danone Company which includes provisions on equality between women and men);

Unions and employers' organizations:

framework agreements at the inter-occupational level (eg. UNICE, ETUC and the European Centre of Enterprises with Public Participation on parental leave and promotion of part-time work);

International and national trade union partnerships:

international trade union activity to assist an affiliate union or coordinate local campaign (eg. to support union efforts to negotiate collective agreements in EPZs in the Dominican Republic, to support women's efforts to form a union in El Salvador);

International campaigns and coalitions (alliances with human rights groups, consumer movement, etc.)

adoption of codes of good conduct applicable to every link in an international production chain (eg. the "Clean Clothes" campaign adopted in May 1998);
class-action suits filed on behalf of workers (eg. The Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees together with human rights groups filed two lawsuits against clothing manufacturers in the US on behalf of women employees in the Northern Mariana Islands);
coalition building around international or cross-border issues, (eg. anti-NAFTA, child labour, Greenpeace);
planning World Women's March 2000;

International assistance, trade unions in developed and developing countries:

ITSs and trade unions in developed countries provide educational and training programmes for trade unions in developing countries (eg. ICEM Latin American project on training women educators to train their women colleagues and strengthen their unions;)
projects for assisting union members, in particular women, in developing countries (eg. SID in Denmark has projects in Central America and Africa);
establishment of international assistance/support funds (eg. a Social Justice Fund);
unions in developing countries (eg. those in Zimbabwe) receive assistance from unions, research institutions, university students in developed countries to carry out research;
Joint Agreements (eg. between Association of Estonian Trade Unions and Scandinavian Trade Unions.

Box 18
Codes of conduct: adequate to protect women and children?

In spite of portraying itself as a "socially committed" enterprise, the Italian manufacturer Benetton was found employing children in one of its subcontracting factories in Turkey. After the revelation, the company announced the suspension of relations with its Turkish licence holder. Two days later in September 1998, it signed a protocol agreement with Turkish and Italian textile unions on a code of conduct called "principles for clean production" – including prohibition of child labour, equal opportunities and equal treatment at the workplace, equal pay for equal work, satisfactory working conditions, guaranteed social cover and Benetton's responsibility for the entire production cycle.

In fact, Benetton was already bound by a code of conduct signed with the textile industry employers (EURATEX) and unions (ETUF:TCL) which refers to fundamental labour standards and, importantly, respect of trade union rights.. While it is true that this is already a victory in itself, the critical point is that freedom of association was not covered in the September protocol – and no less than 40,000 trade unionists from the DISK (the textile workers' federation) had been dismissed over the past two years in a country which is known for its discrimination against women and the use of child labour.

Source:
J. Delorme, "Grey skies over the textile industry", Trade Union World No.12-1, December 98-January 9, pp.32-33.

Table 1
Type of Union and Region

Region	Type and Number of Unions
	National Centre	Local Union	Total
Africa:	13	16	29
Asia and the Pacific:	7	35	42
Far East	--	6	6
South-east Asia	2	7	9
South Asia	5	18	23
Pacific	--	4	4
Middle East:	1	--	1
Europe:	26	74	100
Western	14

Executive Summary The Role of Trade Unions in Promoting Gender Equality and Protecting Vulnerable Women Workers First Report of the ILO-ICFTU Survey