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2. Safety and health issues in
the fishing industry

This chapter will examine safety and health issues in the fishing industry. First there is a discussion of many of the risks and the ways of categorizing fatalities and injuries. This is followed by a review of some of the causes, including underlying causes, of accidents, injuries and diseases, and how they may be analysed so as to devise prevention strategies. The role of insurance and the costs of accidents are also discussed.

The statistics available should be used cautiously. The approaches to collecting information on accidents and injuries in fishing seem to vary considerably. Although in many countries it appears that accidents and injuries are under-reported, the statistics should help identify some of the main problem areas. A discussion of the ILO's experience in preparing international statistics on occupational safety and health is included in Chapter 5.

Special characteristics of the working
environment in the fishing industry

Fishing takes place in the often hostile marine environment. Fishing vessels, except in very calm weather, are constantly in motion. When the weather is particularly rough, the motion may be extreme and unpredictable. On deck, fishermen are exposed to the weather and the sea, fishing gear and other equipment and usually to the catch itself. On or below deck they may face dangers associated with processing and, even when not working, they are still subject to vessel motion. There is always the possibility of fire, sinking and other traditional maritime dangers. Fog carries the risk of collision or grounding.

Marine fishing operations can take place anywhere from very close to shore in protected bays to far out at sea. Though great strides have been made in many countries to provide search and rescue and medical evacuation services to fishing vessels (such as medical evacuation by helicopter), it may take quite a while for aid to reach vessels or persons in distress. A sick or injured fisherman must depend on receiving immediate medical care from other members of the crew; if fishing alone, the only help available must come from himself or from nearby fishing vessels, if at all. Fishermen on artisanal craft may not have a radio to call for help.

As touched upon in Chapter 1, certain fishermen also face risks of physical abuse on board. Some face physical risks due to military or resource-related conflicts or piracy.

Fishermen depend on their vessels for their survival. If the vessel suffers a casualty, the fishermen have a good chance of losing their lives (in some areas families live on board and thus share the risks). The design, construction, maintenance and operation of the vessel all directly affect safety and health.

Living and working space on board fishing vessels can be quite limited. Vessels usually carry a substantial amount of equipment necessary to store and (frequently) process fish. This does not leave much living and working space, and fishermen must therefore usually work very close to powerful and potentially dangerous machinery. If fishing gear breaks free, there may be nowhere to get away from it. Cramped crew accommodation can result in fishermen living very close to each other, and this may increase stress as well as facilitate the passage of contagious diseases.

Risks vary with each type of fishing operation, area of operation, vessel size, equipment carried and the job of each fisherman. On larger vessels, the risk of being killed or injured through crushing by heavy equipment may be relatively high. On small and artisanal vessels, the risk of capsizing from a snagged trawl, sinking while pulling in a large catch and even being attacked by dangerous marine life can be considerable. In places where fishing vessels are unable to operate from ports or shelters, crossing surf may be very dangerous. Bad weather, loss of power and unsuitable vessels are additional risks, perhaps greater for small vessels than larger ones. Smaller craft may more easily be damaged by or lost in powerful storms⁽¹⁾ or run down by merchant ships.⁽²⁾ The safety problems associated with crabbing in the Bering Sea off Alaska are quite different from those encountered in shrimp trawlers in the Bay of Bengal. Over-simplification of the industry, which may lead to inappropriate regulation and thus resentment and loss of the cooperation of the fishermen concerned, can itself be a danger.

Measuring accidents and injuries in the fishing industry

There is not only a great variety in fishing operations but also a great variety in the way fishing safety and health problems are qualified and quantified. For example, deaths and injuries can be related to vessel casualties or to personnel accidents not involving loss or damage to the vessel; they may be attributed directly to one cause (e.g. drowning) or indirectly to other causes (capsizing of vessel, falling over the side). Accidents may be attributed to a primary event or an underlying or primary cause; they may be associated with certain types of fishing (trawling, longlining) or to certain types of equipment (winches, fishing gear). The external environment may be seen as the cause (bad weather) or an accident may be attributed to the human element (inattention, fatigue, lack of training). Causes may be described in very general terms used for all professions (falling from height, slipping) or be specific to fishing (caught in trawl winch). They can be categorized under various headings, including by vessel size.⁽³⁾

Fatalities

A comparison between fatality statistics in the fishing industry and general occupational fatality rates of other occupational categories shows that fishing is one of the most dangerous professions. In Australia, between 1982 and 1984, the fatality rate for fishermen was 143/100,000 person-years compared to 8.1/100,000 generally; in Denmark, from 1989 to 1996, the rate was 25-30 times higher than the rate for those employed on land; in the United States in 1996, the death rate was estimated at eight times that of persons operating motor vehicles for a living, 16 times higher than such occupations as fire-fighting and police work and over 40 times the national average; in China, over 400 fishermen are reported killed in accidents each year; in Tunisia in 1994, the rate was double the national average.⁽⁴⁾ Table 2.1 presents statistics on occupational fatalities and injuries in the fishing industry in selected countries. The ILO's Occupational Safety and Health Branch estimates that fishing has a worldwide fatality rate of 80 per 100,000 workers or approximately 24,000 deaths per year, and estimates that there are 24 million non-fatal accidents in the sector annually.

Table 2.1. Occupational fatalities and injuries in the fishing industry in selected countries, 1997
 

Fatalities due to vessel casualties

Vessel casualties are obviously a major risk and cause of death to fishermen. Table 2.2 shows data on lives lost by category of vessel casualty during the period 1995-97 based on information submitted to the International Maritime Organization by 18 countries and areas.⁽⁵⁾ Tables 2.2 and 2.3 divide fishing vessels into three size categories: less than 12 metres, 12-24 metres and over 24 metres.

Table 2.2. Lives lost by category of vessel casualty for 18 countries, 1995-97
 

This table indicates that the greatest number of fatalities are related to foundering, fires or explosions, and to the wrecking or stranding of fishing vessels. In the United States (which is not reflected in the table and which uses a different set of vessel casualty categories), of the 57 per cent of deaths directly related to vessel casualties, most are due to sinking, flooding and capsizing.⁽⁶⁾ This, however, is only a sampling of the world fleet, and it is likely that in some of these countries the fatalities are under-reported. In some fishing communities there may be no death certificates or coroner's report. There may also be no requirement for deaths to be reported to the local, district or national authorities. Thus, fatality statistics may only be partially representative of reality (see also the discussion of statistics in Chapter 5).

There are many reasons why casualties occur. Foundering may be caused by the fishing vessel experiencing conditions which exceed its design or by hull failure due to poor maintenance; capsizing may result from poor design, inappropriate modification, improper loading or ballasting of the vessel, or from taking heavy beam seas following loss of power; a stranding may be the result of poor navigation or uncharted shoals; collisions may result from poor watchkeeping by either the fishing vessel or a passing merchant ship.

Fatal accidents on board

The nature of fishing operations also involves the risk of accidents on board. On-board accidents are meant here as those in which the vessel is neither lost nor seriously damaged but where a fisherman is killed or injured. This may result from falling overboard, handling fishing gear, slipping or falling on board as a result of vessel motion, asphyxiation from working in an enclosed space, etc.

Table 2.3 shows data from 18 countries (see footnote 5) on lives lost due to accidents on board during the period 1995-97.

Table 2.3. Lives lost due to accidents on board, 1995-97
 

Bearing in mind that the information presented above only covers a small group of countries, it is very evident that falling overboard (or going missing) remains a major cause of death. Among these losses are drownings or deaths from hypothermia. A study of fatal accidents in the Danish industrial fishing fleet during the period 1989-96 reported 70 such accidents,⁽⁷⁾ just over half resulting from vessels sinking. Most fatalities on small vessels (less than 20 grt) occurred during the winter months in bad weather. Circumstances such as overloading, improper alterations to structure, and, for small vessels, use of vessels beyond their capacity, were indicated. Fatalities involving vessels over 20 grt resulted from lack of, or inadequate, safety procedures. Several fishermen were killed owing to being pulled over the side by gear or otherwise falling overboard and drowning -- 12 fishermen died due to some sort of accident involving machinery (winches, trawl doors, ice conveyor belts, etc.), nine accidents occurred in connection with boarding or leaving the vessel (alcohol often cited as a contributing factor) and many accidents had not been witnessed leaving the causes unknown.

Fatal accidents in small-scale artisanal fishing

Artisanal and other small-scale vessels often operate with less than adequate safety and communication equipment, first aid, search and rescue (SAR) and early warning services. In Guinea, a small country with some 7,000 artisanal marine fishermen, a survey disclosed that during one year every 15th canoe has an accident, and for every 200 registered fishermen one person (male and female fishermen, fish traders and their families) dies in a canoe accident. In Oceania, during the 1989-90 period, some 120 deaths in about 640 accidents were reported. This picture becomes worse still when the sometimes massive losses of life and equipment in tropical storms are taken into consideration.⁽⁸⁾

Most fishing vessels are too small to be fitted with accommodation ladders. In harbours with a rise and fall of the tide, access to vessels is normally by ladders indented into the pier with steel rungs. These rungs are sometimes twisted or, even worse, missing. Due to the common method of mooring the vessels in parallel, the fisherman then has to cross several vessels to reach his own. Such a traverse is risky even in daylight under normal circumstances. When a fisherman returns to his boat at night (in some cases under the influence of alcohol), in the darkness with no one else around, such an obstacle course can be fatal.⁽⁹⁾

Non-fatal accidents

Non-fatal accidents are common in the fishing industry.⁽¹⁰⁾ The body regions most frequently injured include the hands, lower limbs, head and neck and upper limbs, followed by the chest, spine and abdomen. The most common types of traumas are open wounds, fractures, strains, sprains and contusions. Many non-fatal injuries may involve amputation of fingers, hands, arms and legs as well as injuries to the head and neck. Infections, lacerations and minor traumas of the hands and finger are quite frequent. Information on the Russian fleet reveals that hands were injured in 41 per cent of accidents, legs -- 29 per cent, wrists -- 18 per cent, head and neck -- 10 per cent.⁽¹¹⁾ A 1995 Swedish study concluded that hands and wrists were the most exposed body parts followed by shanks or knees and lower arms or elbows.⁽¹²⁾ Others categorize accidents according to the nature of the injury sustained. For example, a study of lost-time accidents covering 10,475 Polish deep-sea fishermen from 1977 to 1986 recorded that the most frequent types of injuries were: contusions and crushing -- 25.2 per cent, fractures -- 24.4 per cent and wounds -- 17.7 per cent.⁽¹³⁾

Other diseases and health problems

An ILO survey (see box 2.1) and other information indicates that many fishermen also suffer from skin and respiratory diseases, as well as from the effects of noise and vibration. Hypertension, coronary heart diseases, stomach cancer and lung cancer are also indicated as important problems. Some diseases, such as salt-water boils and injury by or allergic reactions to marine life are peculiar to fishing.

Common problems include occupational asthma, hearing loss, fatal poisoning and asphyxia, skin diseases, cancers of the lip, lung and stomach. Occupational asthma was associated with several types of fish but mostly with crustaceans and molluscs. Fatal poisoning was often related to the inhalation of toxic fumes caused by fires on board. Asphyxiation or poisoning occurred due to the lack of oxygen or the build-up of toxic gases in enclosed spaces. Skin diseases were related to handling fish or other marine life without using gloves. Lip cancer (and skin cancer) are probably the result of excessive exposure to the sun. Lung cancer may be related to excessive smoking among fishermen. It may also relate to the use of asbestos and other materials in machinery spaces.⁽¹⁴⁾ Other health problems may include eye damage from excessive glare from the sun and irritations resulting from standing for long periods or sitting for long periods on cold surfaces.⁽¹⁵⁾
 

Musculoskeletal disorders (i.e. diseases of the muscles, tendons and/or joints) are common. These problems are largely the result of heavy lifting, awkward work postures, repetitive work tasks, stress and poor work organization. In a Swedish study,⁽¹⁶⁾ it was determined that 74 per cent of fishermen had experienced symptoms of musculoskeletal disorder over a 12-month period and the fishermen themselves felt that the motion of the vessel was a major contributor. Fish processing workers, whether at sea or ashore, also had a high prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders. This may be related to the highly repetitive tasks performed in a short time cycle and the lack of rotation among different tasks. As many fish processing jobs are performed by women (usually on large factory trawlers at sea or in processing plants ashore), this can be a particular characteristic of women's employment in the fishing industry. A study of artisanal fishermen in Morocco showed that one-third suffered from musculoskeletal disorders, and these were generally related to the methods used, and conditions involved, in the unloading of the catch ashore.⁽¹⁷⁾ Tendonitis, related to long hours or repetitious work, is a particularly serious problem for crewmen and processing workers in the cold weather conditions of Alaska.⁽¹⁸⁾

Relating safety and health to fishing methods⁽¹⁹⁾

Safety and health risks vary by fishing method. For example, longlining may be characterized by long working hours, stationary work and relatively less heavy lifting. Dangerous aspects of auto-liners, conventional liners or hauling craft may include being caught in the line and pulled over the side during line setting and becoming caught in the line-roller and line when hauling. With trawling, the risk is highest during hauling as the crew usually works close to the wires and other gear (e.g. otter boards) under considerable strain. In heavy weather, the wire or gear may sweep across the deck, causing major injuries or loss of life. Common accidents involve falling or being struck or crushed.⁽²⁰⁾

Relating safety and health to processing the catch

Catch processing is carried out on nearly all vessels except those that deliver the catch to shoreside fish processors. Freezing and wetfish operation may result in less accidents than on vessels using more extensive processing machinery; however, the cold environment and the frequent change in temperatures (varying by as much as 40 to 45 degrees centigrade) can lead to health problems, including frostbite and hypothermia. This work can also be very heavy. Fish processing lines can involve high noise levels and very specialized, stationary work (in some ways similar to assembly line work ashore). An analysis of the processing of the catch on a Dutch beam trawler revealed: heavy labour due to much lifting of baskets and boxes during intermediate storage and to working in the cooled fish hold during icing and final storage; many minor hand and finger injuries caused by the manual gutting of the catch; falling in the processing workstation positioned under the foredeck and in the hold; stress due to peak workloads and short work cycles; high noise, vibration and acceleration levels; and poor ambient conditions during work in the fish hold.⁽²¹⁾

Relating injuries to jobs or tasks

Accidents and injuries in the fishing industry may be categorized according to the job or task concerned. Table 2.4 below shows some of the types of work commonly performed on fishing vessels and the injuries frequently related to this work.

Table 2.4. Risks of injury associated with specific tasks
 

In a study of the Russian fishing industry, which has a relatively high proportion of large trawlers, accidents were distributed as shown in table 2.5.

Table 2.5. Accident distribution in the Russian fishing fleet, by task
 

The Workers' Compensation Board of British Columbia, Canada, reported that between 1993 and 1995, of 714 work accidents at sea, the activities most associated with accidents were: handling fishing gear -- 23 per cent, handling fish -- 21 per cent, and emergency response -- 9 per cent. A 1996 Danish study revealed that nearly half of all injuries occurred while shooting or hauling fishing gear.⁽²²⁾ A study of accidents on Dutch beam trawlers categorized accident sources as being a combination of equipment and type of work. Categories included: warping drum for cod end rope/gilson wire; snapping of cable; jammed by cable; hit by cable slam; swinging of load; jammed by net; dragged by net/rope; gutting of fish; use of tools; falling; doors, hatches; fish crates.⁽²³⁾

Fishermen in small-scale and artisanal fishing operations can suffer particular types of accidents and injuries. For example, fishing operations that require partial or full submersion⁽²⁴⁾ expose fisherfolk to injuries by fish and other animals. These can include: posining; injury caused when bringing the catch on board, including some from by-catch; sting from poisonous fish (common in some areas); falling overboard; capsizing (Often due to crossing surf or hauling gear); and fouling gear in the propeller.⁽²⁵⁾

Causes of accidents

What is behind these events? Again, there are different approaches to examining the causes of accidents, but all have the same general objective -- to understand what factors, or series of factors, led to a casualty or accident, in order to prevent them in the future or mitigate their effects.

The IMO has collected information from member States on the primary causes of casualties which led to the death of fishermen (see table 2.6). The table divides primary causes into a number of categories covering both vessel and human factors.

Human error, fishing gear incidents and adverse weather appear as important primary causes in the accidents reported to the IMO. As will be seen later in this report, new investigation techniques are helping investigators obtain a better understanding of what causes accidents.

Table 2.6. Primary causes of fatalities of fishermen
 

The role of the human factor or human error has been a recurrent theme in recent discussions on how to improve safety (see box 2.2). While always recognizing that human and equipment causes can often not be clearly separated, these discussions have helped remind us, in an age when technology-based solutions can be oversold, of how action or lack of action by people is essential to safety.
 

In one study,⁽²⁶⁾ among other things, vessel-related factors and behavioural factors were observed. Vessel-related factors included: non-availability or lack of adherence to structural guidelines, classification society rules and similar standards during vessel design and construction or conversion; general non-availability of stability data for each vessel; inadequate material condition of vessels and equipment, especially machinery, alarm systems and survival equipment; unavailable or inadequate operating equipment, including bilge alarms and smoke detectors, bilge pumps and fire-fighting systems; use of machinery and fishing gear with inadequate occupational safety and health features; inadequate personal occupational safety equipment; and inadequate or insufficient survival equipment. Behavioural factors included: fatigue/stress; improper or inadequate procedures (including inadequate or unsafe loading/stability practices) and inadequate watchkeeping; improper maintenance; inattention (including carelessness); inadequate human engineering in design; inadequate physical condition; incapacitation through use of alcohol and drugs; inexperience (including inadequate knowledge and skills and insufficient familiarity with the vessel or fishing activity); judgemental errors (including faulty decision-making and risk- taking); navigational/operator error (including inexperience and errors in judgement); neglect (including wilful negligence); personnel relationships; and working conditions.

Providing a safe vessel

Fishing vessel owners have the primary responsibility for providing a safe vessel and safety equipment. However, some may claim that replacing vessels or providing certain safety equipment is too costly. Vessel modifications, including adding superstructure or equipment weight on deck, are often made without adequate consideration or testing of their influence on stability. Measures to reduce noise (which is a common problem) and to guard machinery may be neglected.

Most countries have adopted laws and regulations concerning vessel safety. However, these are often aimed only, or primarily, at larger vessels. Design, construction and equipment requirements for small vessels may be very limited, and in some cases non-existent. In many countries small vessels are not subject to inspection or, even if they can be inspected, they are not due to lack of resources. As indicated in Chapter 1, it appears that many distant-water fishing vessels are being registered in countries which do not exercise effective control of safety and health issues (i.e. very few regulations, insufficient inspectors or administrative machinery, etc.).

While it may be evident that fishermen would wish to at least carry such items as fire extinguishers, life preservers and simple first-aid kits, many do not. Fishermen are very practical, and many object to carrying, and paying for, items they believe are unnecessary. Many barely break even financially, and items such as an immersion suit or life-raft may seem excessive and expensive. When money does become available, the fisherman may decide that it is better spent on new, updated fishing gear or fish-finding equipment which will result in a larger catch, less time on the water and perhaps less time at risk.

If a fisherman believes that a piece of equipment is not really necessary, he may resent, and strongly fight, requirements to carry it. An owner working alone on his own vessel may be willing to take risks; an owner carrying other fishermen on board obviously has greater responsibilities.

In developing countries, or even in small-scale and artisanal fisheries in other countries, many vessels are built without following modern rules of construction which aim to ensure good stability and seaworthiness under specific operating conditions. With the almost universal absence of mandatory criteria and inspection, many boat builders have produced unsafe boats, mostly due to lack of experience, financial constraints and lack of appropriate materials or lax building practices. Even when technical cooperation projects have improved vessel standards, the results have not always, however, led to increased safety as enthusiastic fishermen have, in some cases, used the vessels in conditions for which they were not designed (see box 2.3).⁽²⁷⁾ Other builders may find it difficult to leave behind traditional vessel designs and building practices.
 

Providing a healthy working environment
and medical care

Discussions on safety and health in the fishing industry focus on what can be done to prevent accidents leading to death or injury. Consideration must also be given to how to protect other aspects of health. Adequate accommodation becomes more important the longer a vessel stays at sea. Accommodation includes the size, location and quality of eating, sleeping and recreational spaces; adequate heating and lighting; sanitary facilities; galley equipment; and facilities for treatment when a fisherman is injured or becomes ill. Reducing noise in both working and living spaces is important.

In contrast, one contract used for distant-water fishing vessels provides: "I understand fully that due to limited water supply, drinking water is supplied by ration. Therefore, sea water is to be used in bathing, washing clothes and tooth brushing." The Office has received several copies of this contract from various sources. It is apparently used on some vessels employing Indonesian, Philippine and other Asian fishermen.

Obviously, quality of food and rest are necessary for good health. The ILO survey indicates that stomach problems are common. This may be related to food quality or insufficient time for digestion due to the rhythm of work. The Office has received reports of fishermen who are not given food of sufficient nutritional value or in sufficient quantities.

The quality of medical examination and medical care is important. Examinations are usually required for fishermen working on fishing vessels which are at sea for a period of more than a few days. However, many fishermen, even those on vessels which stay at sea for long periods, may not be regularly examined. This can lead not only to problems for these fishermen but also for other crew members who may themselves become ill or who may be required to take on the work of their sick crewmate. A sick or injured seafarer must also rely on the knowledge of the captain and crew, perhaps with the assistance of radio advice, to provide immediate first aid. Medical chests or kits may be missing, inadequate or outdated. As in all other aspects of fishing safety and health, there are examples of abuse (fishermen denied medical treatment aboard or ashore) and, conversely, thoughtful innovation (see Chapter 3).

Medical care ashore is another issue. Some fishermen receive medical treatment ashore through national medical care programmes or through insurance provided as an employment benefit. Others lacking a formal employment contract must pay for their own health insurance or medical care. Many fishermen have limited or no access to medical care.

Training and risk awareness

Adequate training would seem to be a prerequisite for working in such a dangerous profession. In some countries nearly all fishermen must receive some training, in some only captains or senior officers must be trained, others have very few requirements.

Generally speaking, the larger the vessel the higher the requirements for the training and certification of fishermen. Chapters 3 to 6 discuss some national, regional and international measures to ensure that fishermen, particularly captains and senior officers, are properly trained.

Skippers of small fishing vessels are often not required to be certified and/or undergo mandatory marine training and pass examinations. This contributes to many stability-associated accidents, especially in industrial countries, where small-scale vessels may have a considerable cargo capacity and some relatively heavy machinery on the deck. Most decked small fishing vessels can be made unstable by skippers who have not been taught the difference between a "stiff" but stable boat, and one that is rolling gently and slowly but is either inherently unstable or its stability has been impaired by overloading. Insufficient training is also a reason for some skippers' and crews' ignorance of means and ways of dealing with such emergencies as fire on board or taking water. The skipper of a small fishing vessel not trained to handle her in heavy seas and strong currents, and especially in narrow passages, represents a risk on board.⁽²⁸⁾

Training takes time. At sea, training (e.g. safety drills) may be seen as interfering with fishing operations or rest periods; ashore, time spent training may be viewed as unpaid work which is also keeping fishermen from precious time with family and friends. Training can also be costly, and government funding may be difficult to obtain. Despite these difficulties, however, many owners have established thorough training programmes.

Training must be credible. Fishermen quickly get a sense of whether or not the person speaking on safety issues understands them and their problems. If they believe that what is presented is impracticable, costly or simply not well thought out, they may not only reject the instructor but also the idea of attending another training course or programme. Consideration might therefore be given to using experienced and respected fishermen to conduct training, such as fishermen who have left the sea due to fishing restrictions, injuries or age.

Basic education is a problem in some countries. Fishermen run the full range from highly educated individuals, formally or informally taught, to those with little or no formal schooling; in poor areas, many fishermen cannot read. Training materials should be aimed at the education level of the target group. They should be clear and well illustrated, so they can be clearly understood by most fishermen.

Culture and attitude

Much has been done (or at least tried) to improve safety and health in the fishing industry. This includes not only government regulation but also training and safety awareness programmes. Yet fatality and injury rates remain high. Obviously, certain dangers inherent in working at sea will always remain and cannot be eliminated. However, perhaps one of the main reasons for the numerous deaths and accidents lies in some fishermen's attitudes towards safety and towards the regulations established to improve it (see box 2.4).
 

Fishing is a profession associated with risk-taking. Elements of risk of various sorts and degrees are inherent in almost every decision made by a skipper or individual fisherman -- decisions on when and where to go fishing, whether to head for shelter, what method/gear to use, whether or not to change a fishing spot, which direction to set their gear, when and where to land their catch, etc. Such decisions take into account weather changes, the condition of the fishing vessel and equipment, the condition and dexterity of the crew, and so on. They depend on the skipper's culture, individual attitude, experience and skill.

Fishing is highly competitive. Highly successful fishermen or "highliners" enjoy tremendous prestige among fisherfolk and their communities (see box 2.5). Prestige considerations may motivate skippers to take unnecessary risks.⁽²⁹⁾ This being said, it may also be true that, over the long term, success may also relate to the ability to avoid risks. Accidents may happen to those who aspire to be "highliners" yet lack the required ability to calculate the risk they are taking.⁽³⁰⁾
 

Many fishermen have a different perception of danger to shoreside workers. Social and cultural attitudes, beliefs and values play an important role in the perception of, and response to, danger. The denial of danger, independence, fatalism, the belief that safety is a problem that primarily requires a technological solution, are common themes among many fishermen. Efforts to improve safety should begin with trying to understand the fishing culture and to involve the fishers in the development and enforcement of safety regulations.⁽³¹⁾

Human factor considerations in traditional fisheries⁽³²⁾

In long-standing traditional fisheries, artisanal fisherfolk have inherited time-proven responses to crises at sea, survival strategies and weather perception that, along with their fishing know-how, evolved through ages of operating traditional technology under specific, local conditions. However, the introduction of modern technologies into traditional systems has in many cases upset the traditional ways of doing things, not always for the better. Lack of appreciation of the limits of modern technology has led to the taking of undue risks (e.g. assuming the outboard motor will always work). This is often exacerbated by shortcomings in technical training in engine operation and maritime training in navigation, in the use of electronic aids and safety equipment, and in first aid and behaviour in emergencies.

There is also a loss of traditional knowledge not only due to the shift to unfamiliar technologies but also to changes in the age composition of crews. Old, experienced fishermen for various reasons stay ashore more often. Young fishermen may not only lack the traditional survival skills and equipment but may also feel less vulnerable to accidents than their elders who, though less skilled in operating modern machinery, have more experience in the marine environment.

Another factor is a mistrust of modern weather forecasting systems and, perhaps even more so, of those who convey the information. A warning from a shoreside official with no fishing experience may not be believed. For example, when the deadly November 1996 cyclone surprised the Kakinada coast in India, messengers issuing the warnings were met in some places with derision by fisherfolk who could not discern the usual storm-indicating signs in the sky and sea. On the day of the cyclone, fishing boats out taking good catches did not anticipate bad weather and would not heed the radio warnings to take shelter.

Influence of the share system and the lack
of a minimum wage on safety and health

Chapter 1 discusses the various wage arrangements in the fishing industry, including the practice of paying fishermen partly or wholly on the basis of sharing the catch. The share system can be motivating, create a sense of team spirit and give everyone a stake in the result, but it can also cause fishermen to accept poor working conditions and long working hours. In order to increase their income, the skipper and crew will ensure that fishing gear is in use for as long as possible. This can lead to hasty manoeuvring and the adoption of unsafe practices. The working rhythm, which is controlled by the size of the catch, the length of the trip, the length of the haul and quality requirements, may be an important factor in accidents.⁽³³⁾ The lack of a minimum wage for fishermen and the vagueness associated with fishing income may also lead some fishermen to fish harder and take unnecessary risks.⁽³⁴⁾

The right to refuse unsafe work

Article 13 of the ILO's Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155) (see also Chapter 6) provides that: "A worker who has removed himself from a work situation which he has reasonable justification to believe presents an imminent and serious danger to his life or health shall be protected from undue consequences in accordance with national conditions and practice." However, it is often difficult for fishermen to exercise this right. As the author of one study⁽³⁵⁾ noted:

The right to refuse unsafe work on offshore vessels has been cited as a major breakthrough allowing offshore fishers the same rights as onshore workers. As of yet, no crew member has ever evoked this right. Why? It is not enough to say that physical risks are part of the job and that economic concerns dominate. Nor is it enough to argue that peer pressure makes this impossible; although it is a necessary part of the equation it is not significant. The fear of retribution by the captain or the company -- that is the fear of the loss of work -- is also relevant as is the fear of lost wages for the voyage itself. The myth of the co-adventurer also plays a part; that is, workers are seen as co-risktakers and as such must take both economic and physical risks. But the necessary condition is the lack of job security, economic instability, and the lack of alternative employment opportunities for these men.

The ability of a fisherman to exercise the right to refuse unsafe work will also vary with the persons directly concerned (supervisor, skipper, owner), whether the fisherman is protected by a trade union (and the extent of that protection) and the legal and administrative system of the flag State of the fishing vessel.

Fatigue

Several studies of fishing safety, and many investigations of casualties and accidents involving fishing vessels, have cited fatigue as a contributing factor to casualties and accidents. There are a number of definitions of the term fatigue as it applies to people. Fatigue has been defined as "a reduction in physical and/or mental capability as the result of physical, mental or emotional exertion which may impair nearly all physical abilities including strength, speed, reaction time, coordination, decision-making or balance".⁽³⁶⁾ It has also been said that: "Fatigue is used as a catch-all term for a variety of different experiences, such as physical discomfort from overworking a group of muscles, difficulty concentrating, difficulty appreciating potentially important signals, and problems staying awake. In the context of an investigation, fatigue is important if it potentially reduces efficiency, erodes the safety margin or otherwise impairs cognitive or physical performance."⁽³⁷⁾

A Spanish study of working patterns on fishing vessels examined the time within a working shift when accidents occur. It was observed that after the first few hours of work there was a progressive reduction in the probability of accidents. The more serious accidents occurred more frequently when work continued beyond eight hours when the probability increased. However, there was no special relationship between the death rate and the hours worked, and it was suggested that this might be more related to the time of the day at which the accident occurred or other causes.⁽³⁸⁾. In another study (see box 2.6) accidents were seen to relate directly to hours of work.

The share system (see above) may also contribute to fatigue. It may create incentives for minimizing the number of crew members: the fewer fishermen sharing in the catch, the more pay for each. Time not spend fishing is considered wasted, unpaid time for every fishermen. When fishing is very good, there is a tendency to continue, despite excessive working hours and phyysical exhaustation. As one author put it:

How long a vessel spends at sea depends on several factors: the number of hauls, the technology involved, the availability and maintenance of both fish-finding and fish-catching equipment, the frequency of equipment breakdowns, the experience of the captain, and the availability of fish, to name a few. Since workers want to get home as fast as possible and to make as much money as possible on a trip, they will push themselves when the fishing is good. They will work beyond their regular six-hour work shift, and push their equipment to the limit in order to bring in large catches of fish. But fatigue leads to higher accidents rates⁽³⁹⁾.

New technology can often alleviate fatigue by reducing the physical exertion of the crew. However, this is not always the case. In one study it was observed that the introduction of new containers for storing catch (as an alternative to loading fish loosely in the hold) on deep-sea wet trawlers increased the hours of work for the same tonnage of fish.⁽⁴⁰⁾

Fishing management systems may also contribute to fatigue. An example are "olympic" or "derby" fisheries, where fishermen are under great pressure to catch as much as possible before the Total Allowable Catch limit is reached. In the most intense fisheries, this has led to continuous fishing for days on end, with little or no rest.

Fatigue may also be related to the quality of the rest and relaxation time. This may itself be linked to overall vessel design and to the quality of accommodation. As one insurance representative put it:

Fatigue can be caused by many factors, the type of the vessel and manning level are important but much may also depend on the design of the vessel. For example, on many vessels crew quarters still seem to be a low priority, coming second to the needs of the fishing and processing equipment. They can be sited near noisy machinery or in a part of the vessel where the motion is great and often the outfitting of the accommodation is quite spartan. On many vessels the best seating consists of a padded bench with a vertical padded backrest along the bulkhead -- not very comfortable. When the most comfortable chair on a ship is in a nice quiet wheelhouse is it so surprising that we are seeing an increase in instances of watchkeepers falling asleep? Rather than putting the emphasis on watch alarms to wake up fatigued watchkeepers, would it not be better to provide comfortable accommodation where the off-duty crew can get proper rest so that they come on duty as fresh as possible?⁽⁴¹⁾

Fatigue may be cumulative, especially when fishermen have very little time ashore. One study in Canada included a survey of the view of fishers.⁽⁴²⁾ One described his situation as follows:

The company sets the work schedule. The company that I've been working for, we have five days in port. But the bigger companies, they're sending their men out two and three days after they come in. They are tired. This could create more accidents than what is normal if you could have your rest ... They're just tiring the men out more ...

The author said such comments were persistent and that, though unions had been able to increase fishers' earnings, this was at the cost of non-monetary benefits. She said some fishers blamed the unions, and others blamed the companies, but all agreed that lengthier trips and short periods at home resulted in exhausted men.

These examples indicate that the linkages between safety and health risks, and fatigue, pay systems and long working hours are crucial. Employment contracts of some fishermen do not attempt to hide the extraordinary working hours which lie ahead (see box 2.7).
 

Economic and fisheries management factors⁽⁴³⁾

Economic need or temporary financial difficulties such as insufficient earnings and pressure by fish-dealers, boat owners, banks and other creditors, etc., may cause fishermen to act in a way that could create dangerous situations. Such behaviour, especially where it involves sailing out despite storm forecasts, trying to make an extra haul when better judgement dictates to seek shelter, or overloading the boat, can prove tragic.

Fisheries management methods may also have an impact on safety. As mentioned earlier, derby or olympic fisheries may incite fisherfolk to fish in bad weather and take other increased risks, though this method of management does seem to be waning. Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) and similar systems might reduce risk-taking as staying in port in bad weather hardly affects the practically guaranteed total catch of each fishing unit involved in such a fishery. However, when the weather is bad some fishermen may still fish in order to take advantage of the higher price paid due to the lower number of fish being landed. A "rush for fish" may also occur under the individual quota system if fishermen suspect that the stock size has been overestimated and deteriorated catches may not pay for their running expenses if they do not catch their share sufficiently early. There is fear that quota systems may lead eventually to the concentration of ownership in fewer hands which may bring non-owner skippers, who may be less experienced than owner-skippers, into the fishery, thus reducing safety. Some fishermen believe that hired skippers may overload their vessels because of pressure or bonuses from the owners and fear of losing their jobs if they land less catch than their colleagues. Where quotas are costly, fishermen may take risks so as to avoid facing bankruptcy. Efforts to control fishing by limiting the length of vessels have in some cases resulted in rather odd, wide designs or very, very cramped accommodation.⁽⁴⁴⁾

An integrated approach to looking at accidents

One useful way to look at why accidents occur and to emphasize the complexity of accident causation, is illustrated by what is known as "Reason's model". This model, developed by Dr. James Reason of the University of Manchester, United Kingdom, looks beyond the immediate circumstances of the accident and looks at the preconditions at the time of the occurrence. This may be a useful tool in identifying who should take what actions to prevent and mitigate the effect of future accidents.

In the model (see figure 2.1), the first layer (defences) represents defences that should mitigate the results of the unsafe act. The second layer (unsafe acts) and third layer (preconditions), include such conditions as fatigue, stress, operating practices, etc. The fourth layer (line management) includes such aspects as training, maintenance, etc. The fifth layer depicts all high-level decision-makers such as regulators, owners, designers, manufacturers, trade unions, etc. Dr. Reason suggests that these decision-makers frequently make "fallible" decisions and these resulting latent defects stay dormant waiting for someone to commit an unsafe act, and thereby trigger a potential accident scenario. If the system's defences function as intended, the results of the unsafe act are caught and the effects are limited. If the defences do not function, the accident could prove tragic. The model shows the importance of reducing or eliminating safety deficiencies. This can be represented as a reduction in the number or size of the holes, thus reducing the probability of an accident. Reason's model is particularly useful in illustrating how an accident can have a number of causes.⁽⁴⁵⁾

The following is a hypothetical example, drawn up by the Office, of how Reason's model might be used to describe an accident on a trawler leading to the loss of a fisherman's arm: (1) the regulations in a given country do not require new entrants to fishing to receive any safety training (decision); (2) the owner does not require this either (decision), neither does he require the skipper to conduct any training on board (decision or line management); (3) at sea, an experienced crew member becomes ill and the newcomer is asked to fill in, having spent very little time on deck and having received little or no guidance (line management); (4) the vessel is operating in fairly rough conditions (precondition); (5) everyone is fatigued (precondition) and the newcomer ventures too close to the deck gear (unsafe act) and loses his balance due to an unanticipated motion of the vessel; (6) he falls into a winch not fitted with proper guards (a possible defence) and his arm is severed before there is time to stop the winch. The fisherman has lost an arm not only due to deck gear or inattentiveness but also to a series of mistakes by himself, the skipper, the owner and the regulator -- all the holes in the model were aligned.

The above example illustrates that measures to prevent accidents as well as to preserve the health of fishermen must be implemented at many levels. An additional consideration is how to reduce the severity of the consequences of an accident. For example, in the scenario described above, there are latent conditions and immediate actions which can mitigate the severity of the accident. The fisherman whose arm is lost faces permanent disability or even death from bleeding, shock or other causes. The latent condition "lack of training in first aid" could result in a death; conversely, immediate action by a crewmate with proper first-aid training may save a life.

Achieving the appropriate balance of responsibility and action among governments, fishing vessel owners, fishermen and others is one of the major challenges involved in improving the safety record. All those concerned must consider how they can reduce the number and size of the holes.

Search and rescue

When a vessel suffers a casualty and either sinks or can no longer manoeuvre, fishermen are usually in extreme danger. Search and rescue (SAR) services are on call in many countries. However, the weather conditions, distance from the coast and the state of search and rescue services of the nearby coastal State or States can vary considerably. In most developed countries, these services are provided by the military, the coast guard, voluntary lifeboat organizations or a combination of any of these. Fishermen themselves are important elements in search and rescue, using either their own vessels or, in some cases, participating in voluntary groups.

In some developing countries, and even some developed ones, the lack of adequate search and rescue services remains a serious problem. Lack of communication equipment on board some small fishing vessels does not help this situation. Inadequate search and rescue services means inadequate medical evacuation services, removing yet another possible protective measure for injured or sick fishermen.

Insurance⁽⁴⁶⁾

Insurance, and the laws under which it operates, can influence safety and health. Those systems which most directly reward fishermen for safe operations, while remaining financially viable, may be most effective. Ideally, safe operators should pay low rates; unsafe operators will pay higher rates and may eventually be forced out of business.

A serious problem in the fishing industry is that many fishermen have no insurance or, if they do have insurance, it covers the vessels but not the crew. This is generally a problem for fishermen on small vessels, particularly in developing countries, but is not unknown in developed countries.

Insurance covering accidents and injuries to the crew may take a number of different forms, including stock insurance companies, Lloyd's associations and mutuals. In the first two forms, insurance is a profit-making venture. The purpose of mutuals is not to make a profit but to provide insurance at a low cost. Policyholders participate in the operations of the company, having voting rights and the power and responsibility to share in the company's financial success and failure. If premiums paid exceed what is needed for losses and expenditures, part of the surplus can be returned to the policyholders.⁽⁴⁷⁾ Members of the mutual are very selective and tend to bar fishermen who do not meet strict criteria.

Protection and indemnity (P&I) clubs are a form of mutual. P&I insurance covers the owner for any legal liabilities which may be incurred towards third parties arising out of the operation of the vessel. This may include paying compensation to crew members injured at work and providing medical care in a foreign port.⁽⁴⁸⁾ Protection and indemnity insurance can be one of the highest fixed costs faced by fishing vessel owners. Premiums are as much as twice (per tonne) of those of other commercial vessel operators and may vary between countries. For example, in 1987 in the United Kingdom the cost of P&I insurance was approximately 5 to 10 per cent of a vessel's premium expenditure while in the United States it was closer to 50 per cent, perhaps due to the legal system and, at that time, to the very limited safety regulations governing fishing vessels.⁽⁴⁹⁾

Workers' compensation systems may benefit employers by relieving them of the primary responsibility for work-related illnesses and injuries and the burden of potentially large awards granted by judges or juries in liability trials.⁽⁵⁰⁾ This may reduce the under-reporting of accidents or injuries, may help to encourage fishermen to seek medical assistance and may lead to better data on the nature and extent of injuries and illnesses. Such systems may also remove the threat of large jury awards following severe accidents. Conversely, such awards may serve as a powerful incentive to provide a safe workplace.

Insurers could play a greater role in improving safety and health in the future. New technology may allow the insurance industry to publish more information about incidents on board fishing vessels worldwide so that owners, operators and designers can learn of the problems that others have encountered and the solutions they have found.⁽⁵¹⁾

The cost of deaths, injuries and illnesses

Accidents and illnesses in the fishing industry are costly. The fishermen bear pain and loss of income and sometimes even lose their lives. The family shares in this suffering as well as in the stress that comes from knowing that fishing is a dangerous profession.

The employer, community and country may have to bear part or all of the costs of hospitalization, unemployment benefits, as well as costs associated with medical evacuation or search and rescue operations (see box 2.8 below) and, when a vessel casualty occurs, costs associated with towing, pollution, clearing blocked waterways, etc.⁽⁵²⁾
 

For the fishing vessel owner, the cost may be experienced in a number of ways. These include the working time lost by an injured fisherman; time lost by other fishermen and crew members who stop work (e.g. to assist an injured fisherman, out of curiosity, out of sympathy, etc.); time lost by officers, skippers and shore management (e.g. assisting the injured fisherman, investigating the cause of the accident, arranging for the fisherman's job to be taken over by another fisherman, preparing mandatory accident reports and attending hearings before state officials); damage to equipment or other property or the spoilage of material and fish; interference with fishing and processing activities (failure to fulfil orders on time, loss of bonuses, payment of forfeits and other similar causes); costs associated with employee welfare and benefit systems; cost of continuing wages of the injured fisherman after his return (although he or she may not be fully productive); loss of profit on the injured fisherman's productivity and on idle equipment; consequences of excitement or weakened morale of the crew due to the accident; and overhead costs per injured employee, the expense of running the vessel which continues while the injured employee is a non-producer.⁽⁵³⁾ During 1994-95, WorkSafe Western Australia determined that the average cost per lost time injury claim was Aus$6,197, with an average of 29.3 working days lost per injury.⁽⁵⁴⁾

Chapters 3 to 5 will look at actions as examples of national, regional and international measures and activities which have aimed to improve safety and health in the fishing industry.

1.  In the last few decades alone, thousands of Asia and Pacific region fishermen -- and their family members -- have been lost to storms and coastal flooding.

2.  M. Ben-Yami: Risks and dangers in small-scale fisheries: An overview, an unpublished paper prepared for the Office in view of this report.

3.  In an effort to develop the basic requirements for the collection, recording and notification of reliable data on occupational accidents, diseases and related statistics, the ILO has published a code of practice entitled Recording and notification of occupational accidents and diseases (Geneva, 1996). This is described in Ch. 5.

4.  Other estimated comparative rates for 1997 (with x indicating the occupational fatality rate for the general population) include Republic of Korea (15x), Estonia (11x), Italy (21x), Lithuania (11x), Poland (9x), Romania (2x), Spain (6x) and Canada (3.5x).

5.  Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Cuba, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, Vanuatu and Hong Kong, China.

6.  J.D. Spitzer: Fishing Vessel Casualty Task Force Report (United States Coast Guard, Mar. 1999).

7.  H.L. Hansen, Consultant, Danish Maritime Occupational Health Services and Danish Maritime Authorities.

8.  Ben-Yami, op. cit.

9.  Dr. A. Smith, FAO, personal communication (1999).

10.  V. Rafnsson: "Health problems and disease patterns", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety (Geneva, 4th edition, 1998), Vol. 3, Ch. 66: "Fishing".

11.  V.M. Minko: On safety and health in the Russian fishing industry (Kaliningrad State Technical University), a paper prepared for the ILO.

12.  M. Törner et al.: "Analysis of serious occupational accidents in Swedish fishery", in Safety Science (Amsterdam, Elsevier Science B.V., 1995), No. 21.

13.  S. Tomaszunas: "Work-related lost-time accidents in deep-sea fishermen", in Bulletin of the Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine (Gdynia, Poland), V. 43, No. 1/4, 1992.

14.  Rafnsson, op. cit.

15.  Dr. A. Smith, FAO, personal correspondence (1999).

16.  H. Ólafsdóttir: "Musculoskeletal disorders among fishermen and workers in the fish processing industry", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, op. cit.

17.  A. Teimmi: Les troubles musculo-squelettiques (TMS) chez les marins pêcheurs, study presented to the 6th Occupational Medicine Congress (Casablanca, 1997).

18.  R. Steiner and A. Embick: "Tendonitis and related afflictions in fishermen and processing workers", in Alaska Sea-Grams (University of Alaska), No. 27, Jan. 1987.

19.  For a brief description of fishing methods, see H. Bárdarson: "Major sectors and processes", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, op. cit.

20.  E. Kjerstad and J. Grinde: "Working environment and health aspects in fishing vessels", Proceedings of the World Symposium on Fishing Gear and Fishing Vessel Design (The Newfoundland and Labrador Institute of Fisheries and Marine Technology, 1989).

21.  J.A. Stoop: Safety and working conditions aboard fishing vessels, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992.

22.  O. Jensen: "Mortality in Danish fishermen", in Bulletin of the Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine (Gdynia, Poland), Vol. 47, No. 1/4, 1996.

23.  H.P. Pröpper: An analysis and evaluation of occupational accidents and possible solutions for technical safety improvements on Dutch beam trawlers, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992.

24.  Such as beach seining, extracting fish from shallow-water set nets, tidal stopnets, fishing and collecting "seed" fry for aquaculture while wading in mangrove channels, estuaries, backwaters, tidal flats and other shallows, diving and collecting sea cucumbers and molluscs, harvesting seaweed, diving for lobsters, pearl shells and trochus, commercial spear gun fishing, as well as undertaking such illicit practices as fish poisoning and fishing with explosives.

25.  Ben-Yami, op. cit.

26.  National Research Council et al.: Fishing vessel safety: Blueprint for a national program (Washington, DC, 1991).

27.  Ben-Yami, op. cit.

28.  Ben-Yami, op. cit.

29.  Ben-Yami, op. cit.

30.  Dr. A. Smith, FAO, personal correspondence (1999).

31.  J. Poggie, R. Pollnac and S. Jones: "Perceptions of vessel safety regulations: A southern New England fishery, in Marine Policy (Oxford, Elsevier Science Ltd.), Vol. 19, No. 5, 1995.

32.  Ben-Yami, op. cit.

33.  J.M. Barrey: Payment method and safety, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992.

34.  J.P. Bloch: Links between the catch-share payment system of seamen in the artisanal fishing sector and their safety and working conditions: Some examples in Normandy, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992.

35.  M. Binkley: "Modern fisheries risk -- Physical, economic and social considerations ", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Rimouski, Canada, Aug. 1989.

36.  Maritime Safety Committee Circular MSC/Cir.813/MEPC/Circ.330.

37.  Annex I, Fatigue, of IMO: Report of the joint session of the Joint MSC/MEPC Working Groups on the Human Element and on Formal Safety Assessment, 70th Session of the Maritime Safety Committee (London, doc. MSC 70/13, 9 June 1998).

38.  B. Marugán Pintos: Industrial accidents in the fishing sector, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992.

39.  M. Binkley: Risks, dangers, and rewards in the Nova Scotia offshore fishery (Montreal & Kingston, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995).

40.  M. Andro and Y. Le Roy: Problems in introducing new technology to fishery, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992.

41.  R.D. Coton: Fishing vessel safety -- The insurer's perspective (London, Shipowners' P&I Club, 1999), unpublished.

42.  Binkley, Risks, dangers, and rewards ..., op. cit.

43.  Ben-Yami, op. cit.

44.  This problem may also be related to certification requirements for skippers and other fishermen, i.e. when the vessel is designed so that when measured by length or volume (gt/grt) it is just below the size requiring a certified captain, engineer, etc.

45.  This description of Reason's model draws considerably from M. Ayeko: Causes & contributing factors -- Analysis of accidents involving fishing vessels in Canada (Transportation Safety Board of Canada, 1999), unpublished paper.

46.  Coton, op. cit.

47.  D. Nixon, R. Moran and C. Philbrick (eds.): "Self-insurance programmes in the commercial fishing industry", Workshop summary report, National Workshop on Fishing Vessel Insurance and Safety, in Marine Advisory Bulletin, No. 31, July 1987, at http://www.nationalfisherman.com/mlibrary/busman/selfinsu.html.

48.  ibid.

49.  B. Gristwood: "Views from the UK insurance market", in Nixon et al., op. cit.

50.  Binkley, op. cit.

51.  Coton, op. cit.

52.  J. Cervera Hernández: Renting as a vector to explain safety levels, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992.

53.  Based on ILO: Accident Prevention, a Worker's Education Manual (Geneva, 1983) as reported by D. Appave, in "The role of the ILO in the improvement of safety and working conditions aboard fishing vessels", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Rimouski, Canada, Aug. 1989.

54.  WorkSafe Western Australia, WorkSafe Statistics, Bulletin No. 83/97 at http://sage.wt.com.au/ safetyline/sowe/ws_stats/ws_8397.html

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