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The fishing industry (or fishing sector) is extraordinarily diverse. At one extreme are large, multinational joint ventures, utilizing large factory trawlers and numerous other vessels, employing thousands of workers on several oceans. At the other are small, wooden canoes and other boats used by individual fishermen⁽¹⁾ to catch sufficient food for their families and perhaps more to sell in their local communities. Most fishing operations fall somewhere between these extremes. The technology used can be simple and traditional, or it may be highly sophisticated, incorporating the most advanced electronic and other equipment. Some parts of the fishing industry are under social and economic pressures resulting from declines or sudden disappearances in certain stocks of fish (and other living marine resources) due to overfishing and other reasons and to loss of access to fishing grounds (see "International developments" below). This has led to some structural adjustment with serious social implications for groups of fishermen.

Employment⁽²⁾

The most comprehensive survey of the number of persons engaged in fishing has been carried out by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).⁽³⁾ The FAO estimates that between 1970 and 1990, the number of people engaged in fishing and fish farming doubled from roughly 13 million to 28.5 million. Of the 28.5 million, roughly 15 million fishermen (or "fishers") are employed aboard decked or undecked fishing vessels operating in the marine capture fisheries, of which more than 90 per cent are working on vessels less than 24 metres in length. This report focuses on these 15 million fishermen.

Food, community and economy

Fish, including shellfish, are a critical food resource. In 1996, the amount of fish available for human consumption was almost 16 kg per person.⁽⁴⁾ For the period 1987-89, fish consumption as a percentage of total animal protein consumption was: North America 6.6 per cent, Western Europe 9.7 per cent, Africa 21.1 per cent, Latin America and the Caribbean 8.2 per cent, Middle East 7.8 per cent, Far East 27.8 per cent, Pacific Basin 21.7 per cent.⁽⁵⁾

Without fishing, some communities and whole regions would find it difficult, if not impossible, to support the local population, at least without substantial government assistance. Fishing is not simply a job but is a way of life with its own traditions and values.

The FAO estimates that in 1996 the value of fish and fishery exports was US$52.5 billion. For developing countries, there was a net trade surplus in fish and fishery products of US$16.6 billion in 1996.⁽⁶⁾ In some countries, fishing is a major part of the national economy. In Iceland it represents nearly 20 per cent of GDP; in Senegal it has become increasingly important as production increased from 50,000 tonnes in 1965 to 436,000 tonnes in 1996, an average increase of 7.5 per cent per year.⁽⁷⁾

The fishing industry is global. The increased popularity of fish and other seafood in wealthier countries, where consumers can pay a higher price, coupled with improvements in preserving, processing and transporting the catch, has also led to many locally caught fish from the developing world to end up on tables in the developed world. In 1995, developed countries accounted for 85 per cent of total fish imports (by value).⁽⁸⁾

Production (the catch)

In 1996, production from world capture fisheries⁽⁹⁾ reached 87.1 million tonnes (compared with 17 million tonnes in 1950, 34.9 million tonnes in 1961 and 68.3 million tonnes in 1983). Growth has since slowed. In 1996, the 12 top producing countries (in decreasing order) were: China, Peru, Chile, Japan, United States, Russian Federation, Indonesia, India, Thailand, Norway, Republic of Korea and Iceland. The first eight of these countries alone accounted for half of the marine catch, which in turn was 90 per cent of all production by marine capture fisheries (with the remaining 10 per cent coming from inland fisheries).⁽¹⁰⁾

The FAO has estimated that about 44 per cent of major fish stocks are fully exploited and about 16 per cent are overfished. Another 6 per cent are considered depleted and 3 per cent are recovering from excessive fishing pressure.⁽¹¹⁾ Earlier projections of world fishery production in 2010 ranged between 107 and 144 million tonnes, with most of the increase expected to come from aquaculture. The contribution from capture fisheries will depend on some further development and on the effectiveness of fisheries management. Improved management of currently overfished stocks could provide an increase of between 5 and 10 million tonnes, whereas continued overfishing could lead to a decline in production.⁽¹²⁾

Future employment in the marine fishing sector may therefore be affected by the overall availability of fish, as well as how the availability of those fish is divided among the various groups of fishermen (e.g. artisanal and small-scale versus large trawlers; developing versus developed world).

World fishing fleet

According to the FAO,⁽¹³⁾ the total world tonnage of fishing vessels was 27,990,000 gross registered tonnage (grt) (1,258,200 vessels) in 1995, up from 12,368,000 grt (594,000 vessels) in 1970, 17,577,000 grt (823,100 vessels) in 1980, 19,973,000 grt (983,400 vessels) in 1985 and 22,810,000 grt (1,201,300 vessels) in 1990. The 30 top countries and areas in 1995, in decreasing order by grt, were: Russian Federation; China; Japan; United States; India; Republic of Korea; Taiwan, China; Ukraine; Democratic Republic of Korea; Spain; Canada; Indonesia; Mexico; Thailand; Panama; Norway; Italy; United Kingdom; Malaysia; Argentina; Morocco; Peru; Pakistan; Poland; Netherlands; France; Chile; Philippines; Cuba; and Lithuania.

The figure below, based on FAO data, gives the distribution of decked fishing vessels by size and clearly shows that the vast majority of the world's fishing vessels are under 25 grt.

In 1995, 46.1 per cent of the world fishing fleet⁽¹⁴⁾ was over 20 years old. This age profile is increasing⁽¹⁵⁾ -- Lloyd's Fleet Statistics for 1996 lists the average age of the fish catching vessels at 20 years old.⁽¹⁶⁾ In 1995 and 1996 there was a sharp decrease in the number of new vessels. However, 1997 data showed an increase in construction. Fifteen per cent of vessels constructed between 1991 and 1995 were registered in "open registers" (Honduras, Liberia, Cyprus and Panama).⁽¹⁷⁾ The FAO has estimated that 5 per cent of fishing vessels in the 100-150 grt range are in open registers, increasing to 14 per cent of fishing vessels over 4,000 grt.⁽¹⁸⁾

International developments

The world's fisheries have come under increasing control. International Conventions, Agreements, Codes and activities have had, and are having, a major impact on where and how fishing takes place. The following are examples.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

In the 1960s and 1970s, certain countries extended their exclusive economic zones to the 200 mile limit (e.g. Iceland extended its fishing limits to four miles in 1952, 12 in 1958, 50 in 1972 and then to 200 in 1975).⁽¹⁹⁾ The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which was opened for signature in 1982, established a new regime governing the exclusive economic zones (EEZs). This gives coastal States the authority to manage fisheries (an estimated 90 per cent of the fish stocks) within this new jurisdiction. Article 62, "Utilization of living resources", paragraph 4, provides that: "Nationals of other States fishing in the exclusive economic zone shall comply with the conservation measures and with the other terms and conditions established in the laws and regulations of the coastal State." This Article lists subject areas to which coastal state laws and regulations may relate (e.g. licensing of fishermen, regulation of fishing seasons, etc.). Though it does not specifically include safety or living and working conditions, the list is not exhaustive. UNCLOS entered into force on 16 November 1994.

While some distant-water fleets continue to maintain access through quotas on catches and through joint ventures with coastal state enterprises, others have been forced from their former fishing grounds. Some vessels have been deployed elsewhere, particularly in the EEZs of developing countries, while others have been sold to coastal States or scrapped. As fishing vessels have a life cycle of up to 30 years, it may take quite a few years for the industry to adjust to these new circumstances. There is a need for retraining and alternative employment opportunities for displaced fishermen.

Agreement for the implementation of the provisions of UNCLOS
Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling
Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks

The Agreement, adopted at the sixth session of the United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks held in 1995, aims to ensure the long-term conservation and sustainable use of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks through effective implementation of the relevant provisions of UNCLOS. It spells out the duties of flag States to ensure that fishing vessels flying their flags comply with its provisions. Under certain conditions and restrictions, a fishing vessel may be boarded and inspected on the high seas for compliance with conservation and management measures for straddling and highly migratory fish stocks. The Agreement also gives non-governmental organizations access to meetings of subregional and regional fisheries management organizations or arrangements.

FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries

The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, which is voluntary, was adopted by an FAO Conference held in 1995. The Code provides principles and standards applicable to the conservation, management and development of all fisheries, and also covers the capture, processing and trade of fish and fishery products, fishing operations, aquaculture, fisheries research and the integration of fisheries into coastal area management. It reflects many of the provisions of UNCLOS and the Agreement for the implementation of the provisions of UNCLOS Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (see above). It also includes references to certain ILO standards (e.g. concerning repatriation of fishermen). The Code encourages port States to check fishing vessels for compliance with subregional, regional or global conservation and management measures or with internationally agreed minimum standards for the prevention of pollution and for safety, health and conditions of work on board fishing vessels. Further impetus was given to the Code when the FAO Ministerial Meeting on Fisheries (Rome, March 1999) adopted the Rome Declaration on the Implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.⁽²⁰⁾

OECD work on the economic impact of
the transition to responsible fisheries

The Committee for Fisheries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is carrying out a substantial programme of work entitled "The economic impact of the transition to responsible fisheries". This involves four related studies: an evaluation of the potential gains and costs involved in the transition to responsible fisheries; the impact on fisheries resource sustainability of government financial transfers; the implications of post-harvesting policies and practices on responsible fishing; and the social implications of responsible fisheries. The OECD is seeking to assess the possible social and employment implications of moving to responsible fisheries and to identify policy options to deal with the effects of these implications on its members and to overcome, or at least ease, the associated adjustment problems. The work is scheduled for completion in late 1999.⁽²¹⁾

Developments in fisheries management

There are growing efforts to manage fisheries in such a way as to preserve fish stocks and protect certain marine life and, in some cases, to distribute the catch among different groups of fishermen. Such efforts have included restricting fishing seasons, limiting the "total allowable catch" and setting individual quotas. While fisheries management issues fall at the international level within the mandate of the FAO, certain aspects may be of concern to the ILO, such as the degree to which fishermen, including vessel owners and representatives of fishermen's organizations, have a voice in the management process, the distribution of access to fisheries, and the impact on employment, local economies and whole fishing communities. Chapter 2 includes a discussion of the possible relationship between fisheries management and fisherman safety.

Changes in technology and operations⁽²²⁾

The last 50 years have seen rapid and major changes in the development of the fishing industry. The improvement and modernization of boats and fishing equipment have increased fishing productivity and efficiency and affected the working conditions and lives of fishermen. Technical developments have also taken place in fish handling and processing and the location of processing. Many vessels process the catch on board and are equipped with effective fish-finding equipment and fishing gear, as well as sophisticated navigational aids. Changes in technology have not only affected fishermen on large vessels. Small-scale fishermen, especially in developed countries, have experienced technical improvements in boat design, the fitting of engines in boats, aids to navigation, fishing gear, fishing methods and preserving the catch.⁽²³⁾

Communications, including safety communications, have improved considerably. Advances in satellite communications have influenced not only fishing safety but also other communications and operations. Satellite systems are also being used to monitor some fishing operations.

Precise navigation has been made much easier by satellite navigation using the Global Positioning System (GPS). With GPS, it is possible to establish a vessel's exact position, set tracks and locate fishing equipment with relatively inexpensive receivers.

Sonar and echo sounder technology have enhanced fishermen's ability not only to find fish but to distinguish between species. On trawlers, headlines on fishing gear can also be fitted with sounders and temperature sensors which permit fishermen to aim the trawl and to ensure efficient entry of fish into the net. Sophisticated monitors on the bridge can provide a clear presentation of what is happening below. Assistance can be obtained by communicating with fishing analysts ashore who can provide information using satellites and other sources and predict where the species sought may be found.

For most of history, fishermen have pulled their gear and fish aboard by hand (many still do), a task requiring strength and endurance. Steam, then electricity and now primarily hydraulics, have dramatically increased the power available on deck. The invention of the power block, for example, significantly eased the labour of many fishermen. At-sea processing has allowed for large catches, leading to massive fishing gear which in turn requires more powerful deck equipment. However, heavier and more powerful equipment may lead to more serious accidents.

There is increased pressure to fish in a manner which avoids incidental by-catch or harm to certain forms of marine life. Special gear (e.g. turtle excluder devices) and restrictions on fishing operations (e.g. no fishing close to seal rookeries) are now familiar fishing concerns. Not long ago, unwanted species, whether simply those that could not be profitably processed, stored and marketed or those with little or no market value, were often discarded at sea, particularly in industrialized fishing. This is no longer an accepted practice.

The development of factory trawlers, beginning in the 1950s, led to the catch being frozen on board and to the increased automation of fish processing. Initially, such ships required a substantial number of dedicated fish-processing workers; improvements in automation have since led to a reduction in manual labour associated with processing and stowing the catch. In some cases, however, work pressure has increased.

Consumers are demanding a higher quality product, i.e. fish that are fresh (or which have been quickly frozen) and have suffered little or no damage during catching, processing and storage. Some countries require that seafood products can be traced along the chain of sales and transportation, all the way to the original harvesting area, and even to the fishermen responsible for the first handling. The necessity of providing a quality product has had a major impact on fishing operations. It has become increasingly important to ensure that gear is not left too long in the water and that fish are not left too long before being cleaned and stored. This can affect the rhythm of work. Icing and freezing at a rapid pace can also influence working conditions and in particular safety (see Chapter 2).

The employer-worker relationship⁽²⁴⁾

While there has been some success in shifting fishermen to stable and formal contractual arrangements approaching those of workers ashore, the majority still belong to the "informal" sector. This includes self-employed fishermen, the employees of very small fishing enterprises employing one or two fishermen on either a regular or casual basis, and fishermen who have no formal employment relationship with their employer. Many fishermen, as noted earlier in this chapter, are engaged only partly in fishing and derive the rest of their income from agricultural or other occupations.

In the coastal zones of developing countries, although there are substantial industrialized fishing activities, most fishermen are in the artisanal small-scale sector. A fisherman may be the owner or a member of the same household as the owner, may have some other long-term traditional arrangement with the owner, or may be a casual labourer without any particularly strong links to the owner.

In developed countries, many fishermen are also employed in the small-scale fishing sector (see description later in this chapter) and may work under informal or casual employment arrangements. In countries where employer-worker relationships are normally recognized by legislation, fishermen may be excluded from such provisions because of the sharing arrangements peculiar to the fishing industry.⁽²⁵⁾ This exclusion can lead to difficulties in obtaining unemployment insurance, health care and other benefits enjoyed by many shoreside workers. Oral contracts may make it difficult to seek redress for pay-related problems.

In large-scale fishing enterprises, there are generally more formal employment relationships. Although most fishermen are usually at least partly paid according to the share system, they generally have the benefit of being unionized and covered by collective agreements. The agreements themselves often reflect traditions which have their origins in artisanal fisheries.

The share system⁽²⁶⁾

The traditional system of remuneration in the fishing industry is the sharing of the catch. Crew and owner must together cover certain operating expenses which are deducted from the gross proceeds obtained from the sale of the catch. The net proceeds are then divided among the boat owner and the members of the crew according to an agreed formula. The risk is shared by the fishing vessel owners and the members of the crew. The earnings incentive encourages the crew to improve productivity. In order to maximize their share of the proceeds, fishermen tend to operate with as few crew members as possible. Variations in the catch make it difficult to estimate an optimum number of crew for a vessel. This can lead to periods when the crew is underemployed and others when the crew works excessive hours.

Sometimes, fishermen are paid based on a share of the catch yet are also guaranteed a minimum wage. The fishermen's income continues to depend on the size of the catch and the proceeds from its sale, but the sharing is usually done before, rather than after, the deduction of operating costs. In some operations, fishermen receive both a regular salary and a share of the catch. The members of the crew receive a fixed salary which is stipulated in the charter party, in the contract of engagement or in the relevant legislation or collective agreement. They also receive a share of the catch calculated on the basis of the gross proceeds from its sale.

Living conditions at sea

Accommodation on fishing vessels covers the full range of conditions, from staterooms, messrooms and recreational spaces that are modern, well-equipped and comfortable to those that are extremely cramped and unhealthy.

Most owners have realized that decent conditions are needed to attract, sustain and retain a good crew (see box 1.1).
 

However, poor conditions prevail on many fishing vessels (see box 1.2). Accommodation obviously also varies in accordance with the economic situation and the length of time the vessel is expected to remain at sea.
 

Child labour and fishing

Many children are working in the fishing industry, either as members of a fishing family or working for others. The following are examples.

In southern Thailand, a significant portion of the fishing industry has been composed of children working as fish sorters, factory workers and fishing vessel crew. Their duties include placing and hauling fishing nets, with other duties sometimes including repairing nets, cooking, steering, sorting fish and carrying fish baskets ashore. Some of the vessels concerned stay within Thai waters, others fish in Vietnamese, Malaysian or Indonesian waters and may be at sea for several months.⁽²⁷⁾

In the Philippines, children have also been employed in the muro-ami fishing industry. Muro-ami fishing involves a large number of swimmers and divers who move a bag net with two detachable wings in order to catch reef fish -- notoriously dangerous work.⁽²⁸⁾

In Indonesia, children have worked in the fishing industry in Gempol Sewu on the coast of Kabupaten Kendal in Central Java. This has included handling nets, diving to drive away unwanted fish, repairing nets, draining boats and preparing meals. Children are also employed in deep-sea pearl diving in the Aru Islands of South East Maluku.⁽²⁹⁾

Child labour in the fishing sector is sometimes found in developed countries. In 1998, a lobsterman in the United States was fined over US$50,000 for violating child labour laws after employing children as young as 10 years old to catch lobsters.⁽³⁰⁾

Through its International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, the ILO works to address this situation. In March 1999, for example, a workshop was held in Indonesia to address child labour in fishing in Jermal. This involved the Indonesian Government, the provincial government of North Sumatra, non-governmental organizations and others seeking to provide accommodation, formal education, training, health care, employment opportunities, and help in drafting appropriate laws and regulations, to assist not only the children but also their parents.⁽³¹⁾ As described in Chapter 6, the ILO recently adopted a Convention concerning the "worst forms of child labour", which includes work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of children.⁽³²⁾

Small-scale and artisanal fisherfolk⁽³³⁾

Small-scale and artisanal fishermen are overlapping terms that cover a very wide range of fish producers who use an equally wide range of fishing technology.⁽³⁴⁾ There is a great difference between small-scale fishermen in industrial countries with a relatively high level of income and standard of living and artisanal fishermen in developing countries. The former are small-scale producers who often use the most advanced fishing technology and electronics on board small, but quite advanced, fishing craft. The mostly poor fisherfolk at the other end of this range make their living by operating low-investment boats and fishing equipment. Most live in remote, coastal communities where living standards and quality of life keep them at the bottom of the socio-economic pyramid.

Half of the world's seafood is caught or otherwise collected by small-scale fishermen operating millions of fishing craft. For example, Portugal alone has over 10,000 fishing boats of less than 10 metres length and there are over 40,000 small-scale fishermen among the Pacific islands.

Women and fishing

Sea fishing has, at least in many countries, traditionally been carried out by men,⁽³⁵⁾ while women have been much more active in fish processing and marketing. The advent of factory trawlers led to a greater number of women on vessels at sea, with the majority of workers on the processing lines of some vessels being women. However, women are also becoming more active in fish catching. Some countries, such as Norway, have made determined efforts not simply to eliminate discrimination but to actively recruit women. Yet, in many places in the world old stereotypes and even superstitions remain.⁽³⁶⁾

Women have also become more politically active in fishing issues at the local, regional and national level,⁽³⁷⁾ whether as fishermen or shoreworkers or as wifes or mothers of fishermen. Wives and mothers can maintain a continuing presence in shoreside fisheries management and safety forums while their husbands or sons are on the water.⁽³⁸⁾ A workshop on gender perspectives in fisheries, held in Senegal in 1996, discussed various strategies and organizational forms that have been adopted by women fishworkers to address their concerns in different countries. In India, for example, women fishworkers are seeking a place within mainstream fishworker organizations to address issues of concern to them. In Canada, the wives of fishermen organize as autonomous groups, join fishworker organizations and get together at the community level to protect the interests of coastal communities. In other Northern countries, women are working to protect smaller operators as well as to improve conditions on board distant-water vessels. In some Southern countries, women fishworkers are struggling to retain their place within the fisheries sector, in the face of globalization and trade liberalization.⁽³⁹⁾

Cases of abuse and conflic

 Some Pacific Island fishermen have also experienced similar problems while working on board foreign flag vessels. They complain of excessively long hours, poor treatment of injuries -- even in the case of seriously injured workers, lack of proper working clothes, non-respect of contracts agreed in advance and even beatings. Some have taken their grievances to court or have formed local fishermen's associations to fight the situation. With limited opportunities at home, many islanders continue to seek this employment and to return to jobs at sea.⁽⁴²⁾

Fishermen have been abandoned in foreign ports following the bankruptcy of their employers, the seizure of vessels following illegal fishing (or alleged illegal fishing) or in connection with political or military disputes. Some fishermen who may have no control over where the vessel operates find themselves in jail for extended periods, receiving no support from owners.⁽⁴³⁾ Fishermen from former Eastern bloc countries have been abandoned (or remained unpaid for long periods) when their once government-owned fleets were privatized and lost access to distant fishing grounds. And in some areas there is piracy.

An International Seminar-Workshop on the conditions of fishworkers on distant-water vessels, held in Manila in 1991, made a number of recommendations to improve conditions, including improving recruitment practices; implementation by national governments of international laws, including ILO and IMO standards; organizing fishworkers; identifying social and legal assistance services; collecting basic information on fishworkers' problems and conditions; improving training; and improving the communication/education of fishworkers' groups. The participants also agreed that fishworkers who were organized in trade unions were generally better treated than their counterparts.⁽⁴⁴⁾

The Office has not obtained information on whether coastal States are seeking to control the living and working conditions of fishermen working on distant-water fishing vessels authorized to fish in the coastal State's exclusive economic zones.⁽⁴⁵⁾ Information on any links, or proposed links, between the authorization to fish in coastal waters and the required standards governing the conditions of the crew on fishing vessels granted such authorizations would be very useful, as this may reveal means of improving conditions of a sadly unprotected group of workers.

Social dialogue in the fishing industry

Many countries have a long history of strong, active fishermen's trade unions and other organizations. The globalization of the fishing industry has led to a subsequent strengthening of the voice of fishermen at the regional and international levels. For example, the International Transport Workers' Federation (ITF) has strengthened and expanded its activities in the fishing sector and, among other things, has sought to address long-standing divisions among certain groups of fishermen. It has also tried to establish closer links with other non-governmental organizations of fishermen. In 1998, the ITF adopted a policy statement calling for cooperation between small-scale or artisanal fishermen and industrial fishermen. The ITF has also been active at the United Nations, ILO, FAO, IMO and OECD, giving its fishermen's trade union affiliates an international voice in international fishing debates.

By way of example, the ITF has long supported the concept of sustainable or responsible fisheries and actively participated in the work of the FAO in the adoption of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. It is also monitoring the restructuring of the world's fishing fleet to ensure that safety and sustainable development issues are taken into account, as well as measures aimed at mitigating the resulting negative socio-economic consequences. The ITF has held a number of regional seminars on these and other issues.

In 1991, the ILO supported the initiative of a number of trade unions and fisherfolk organizations in the Philippines to hold a conference-workshop on trade unions and organizations of fisherfolks, the main objective of which was to clarify the ways by which trade unions and other forms of fisherfolks' organizations could actively intervene in the promotion of the welfare of fisherfolks and the strengthening of their organizations.⁽⁴⁶⁾ In 1999, the United Federation of Labour, Sri Lanka, with some support from the ILO, undertook a study of labour conditions and working practices in Sri Lanka's deep-sea fisheries sector with the objective of putting in place legislation that provides for safe working conditions, labour rights and social security for deep-sea fishworkers and their families.⁽⁴⁷⁾

National owners' organizations have played an important role in safety and other matters in their respective countries. Europêche has been the voice of fishing vessel owners on labour and other issues before the European Commission (see Chapter 4). The International Coalition of Fisheries Associations has represented fishing vessel owners at the United Nations, FAO and other forums.

The Tripartite Meeting will provide an opportunity to discuss whether and how the ILO could play a more active role in encouraging the establishment or strengthening of national organizations of fishing vessel owners and thus enhance social dialogue in the fishing sector.

1.  The term "fisherman" is gender neutral, and is the term used in ILO instruments.

2.  This information is taken primarily from the FAO Fisheries Department Internet site from a document entitled "Number of fishers doubled since 1970" at http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/highligh/fisher/ c929.htm. The FAO warns potential users of data shortcomings which may have resulted from gaps or estimates by national statistical offices and from the incomparability of data due to the utilization of different concepts and methods in the assessment of the number of persons engaged in fishing and aquaculture. However, this still represents the best available information on global employment in the fishing sector.

3.  The ILO publishes a number of relevant series on workers in its Yearbook of Labour Statistics. These relate to total employment (paid employment plus self-employment) and persons in paid employment. All these series are classified according to economic activity, using either the International Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities (ISIC) Revision 2 or ISIC Revision 3. Where ISIC Rev.3 is used, separate data may be available for fishing; otherwise, fishing is incorporated in Major Division 1 of ISIC Rev.2 along with agriculture, hunting and forestry. The data on total employment are also classified by occupation, according to International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) -- either the 1968 revision (ISCO-68) or the 1988 revision (ISCO-88), at the major group level. Consequently, fishermen are not identified separately.

4.  FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1998 (Rome, 1999).

5.  Alain le Sann: A livelihood from fishing: Globalization and sustainable fisheries policies (London, Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998).

6.  FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1998, op. cit.

7.  See http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/fcp/fcp.htm.

8.  FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1996 (Rome, 1997).

9.  That is, excluding aquaculture.

10.  FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1998, op. cit.

11.  ibid.

12.  http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/highligh/2010.htm.

13.  FAO: Bulletin of Fishery Statistics, No. 35 (Rome, 1998).

14.  Of vessels 24 metres and over and 100 grt and over.

15.  J. Fitzpatrick and C. Newton: Assessment of the world's fishing fleet 1991-1997, at http://www.greenpeace.org/~oceans/reports/flotta.html.

16.  Lloyd's Register of Shipping World Fleet Statistics, 1996 (London, 1997).

17.  Fitzpatrick and Newton, op. cit.

18.  FAO: Open registers, doc. MSC 71/10/1, submitted by the FAO to the 71st Session of the IMO's Maritime Safety Committee (Mar. 1999).

19.  M. Wigan: The last of the hunter gatherers (Shrewsbury, United Kingdom, 1998).

20.  For the text of the Declaration, see http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/agreem/declar/ dece.htm.

21.  For further information on how to obtain these reports, see http://www.oecd.org/agr/policy/ag-fish/index.htm.

22.  Based on World Fishing: Fisherman's manual (Kent, Nexus Media Ltd., 1997).

23.  ILO: Fishermen's conditions of work and life (Geneva, doc. CFI/4/1988/1).

24.  Based, with updates, on ILO: Fishermen's conditions of work and life, op. cit.

25.  See also discussion of ILO Convention No. 155 in Ch. 6.

26.  Based, with updates, on ILO: Fishermen's conditions of work and life, op. cit.

27.  K. Nitiruangjaras et al.: A research on child labour in the fishery industry and other continued industries in Pattani (Thailand, 1998).

28.  V. Rialp: Children and hazardous work in the Philippines (Geneva, ILO, 1993).

29.  S.R. Pardoen: Children in hazardous work in the informal sector in Indonesia (Jakarta, ILO/Atma Jaya Research Centre, 1996).

30.  Reported in the CRS daily summary, 25 Sep. 1998 at http://www.altgreen.com.au/fisheries/crs_ summaries_lfv.html.

31.  Communication from the ILO Office in Jakarta.

32.  The ILO's Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138), and Minimum Age (Fishermen) Convention, 1959 (No. 112), are discussed in Chs. 5 and 6.

33.  Based on M. Ben-Yami: Risks and dangers in small-scale fisheries: An overview, an unpublished paper prepared for the Office in view of this report. The Office may publish the report at a later date as a sectoral working paper.

34.  In this report small-scale fisheries are defined in two ways: (1) by socio-economic criteria, and (2) by technical ones. According to socio-economic criteria, small-scale fishermen are people of both genders who usually operate their own fishing craft and equipment, go to sea either alone or accompanied by a few crew members who are preferably their own friends or relatives. Technical criteria used in this report define small-scale fisheries as a sector in which fishermen fish and collect aquatic organisms from beaches and from under ice, either by swimming, diving or wading, or using small-scale fishing craft. Small-scale fishing craft are defined, for industrial countries, as boats of less than 10-12 m length overall, and less than 12-15 MT displacement, powered by engines not exceeding 200-300 hp (150-225 kW). For developed countries, this definition also covers canoes, pirogues and open-deck dhows up to 16 m length overall, powered by engines not exceeding 200 hp (150 kW). Ben-Yami, op. cit.

35.  Although there are notable examples of fisheries, particularly inland fishing in many African countries, where women constitute the majority of fishermen or "fishers".

36.  For a discussion of gender and fishing, see E. Munk-Madsen: "Psychosocial characteristics of the workforce at sea", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety (Geneva, 4th edition, 1998), Vol. 3, Ch. 66: "Fishing".

37.  See the discussion of the Commercial Fishing Industry Vessel Advisory Committee (CFIVAC) under "United States" in Annex 1.

38.  The Gloucester Fishermen's Wives Association, in Massachussets, United States, for example, participates not only in local forums but is also represented on the national advisory committee concerned with fishing safety.

39.  This workshop, organized with the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF), was reported in "Different voices, similar concerns", in Samudra Report (Madras, ICSF), No. 15, Aug. 1996.

40.  For a more detailed discussion of these issues see J. Vacher: "Floating sweatshops: Migrant workers on distant-water fishing vessels", in FAO: Responsible fisheries, Development Education Exchange Papers (DEEP) (Rome), Oct. 1995.

41.  Personal correspondence forwarded by Jacques Harel, General Secretary, International Christian Maritime Assocation, Mar. 1999.

42.  "The fishermen's story", in Asia Now, investigative report (four-part series, 1998-99).

43.  This situation has been described in considerable detail in H. Mahadevan et al.: Fishworkers as prisoners of war (New Delhi, South Asian Labour Forum, May 1998).

44.  Report on the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers' Seminar-Workshop on the conditions of fishworkers on distant-water vessels (ICSF, Belgium, 1991).

45.  It is, however, aware that the Falkland Islands Legislative Council, inter alia, "unanimously endorsed a motion on 25 March to take action to deny fishing licences to vessels, companies and masters shown to be involved in human rights abuses", as reported in Fishing News International (London), June 1998.

46.  ILO: Trade unions and organizations of fisherfolks (1992).

47.  Letter to the ILO from the United Federation of Labour, 23 July 1998.

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