See text links
below.
By Shizue Tomoda
Since its founding in 1919, the ILO has been active in improving living and working conditions throughout the world by establishing international labour standards in the form of Conventions and Recommendations. They cover many aspects of employment and labour issues, including occupational safety and health. When member States ratify any Conventions, they are obliged to apply the provisions of the Conventions ratified. They must also accept a measure of international supervision. By virtue of their ratification, they are required to conform their national legislation and practices with the provisions of the Conventions. Accompanying Recommendations are not subject to ratification, but provide specific guidelines to achieve the standard set in the Conventions.
There are other forms of ILO activities concerning OSH. International, regional and national seminars are often organized to promote safety and health standards by raising awareness and understanding of relevant issues among the tripartite constituents. Advisory services and technical cooperation on specific OSH topics in certain sectors are also available. Collection and dissemination of information related to the above are also an important part of promoting improved safety and health in the workplace.
International labour standards in the field of occupational safety and health can be classified into four categories: those that provide protection against specific risks (such as asbestos and guarding machinery); standards that provide protection in specific branches of economic activity (construction, the maritime sector, mining); those that highlight specific protection measures (the medical examination of young workers, the prevention of occupational cancer); and standards that set policies for action, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Convention (No. 155) and Recommendation (No. 164), 1981, and the Occupational Health Services Convention (No. 161) and Recommendation (No. 171), 1985.82
There are a number of ILO Conventions and Recommendations on OSH that are applicable to the food, drink and tobacco industries as a whole, though none are specifically designed for workers in meat, poultry and fish processing. Of the Conventions and Recommendations adopted, some are more relevant to the industries concerned than to others, as they relate directly to the OSH problems of the workers. These include Convention No. 119 (guarding of machinery), 1963; Convention No. 127 (maximum weight), 1967; Convention No. 148 (air pollution, noise and vibration), 1977; Convention No. 155 (occupational safety and health), 1981; and Convention No. 161 (occupational health services), 1985 and their accompanying Recommendations.
The Guarding of Machinery Convention (No. 119), applicable to all power-driven machinery in all branches of economic activity, came into force in April 1965. As at 30 June 1996, a total of 48 ILO member States have ratified the Convention. The Convention provides that the sale, hire or transfer in any other manner or exhibition of machinery without appropriate guards shall, to such extent as the competent authority may determine, be prohibited by national laws or regulations. The obligation to ensure compliance with these requirements rests on the vendor or the person letting out on hire or transferring the machinery, or on the manufacturer. As regards power-driven machinery, the employer is obliged to ensure that only machinery with appropriate guards is allowed in the workplace. Furthermore, the employer is expected to bring national laws or regulations regarding the guarding of machinery to the notice of workers and to instruct them concerning the dangers in using the machinery. On the other hand, no worker is expected to use any machinery without the guards.
The adoption of this Convention marked an important shift in the approach taken in the prevention of occupational accidents caused by dangerous machinery. Previously, regulations on guarding machinery had concentrated on safety rules for its operation. But the cause of accidents often lies in the design and manufacture of potentially dangerous machinery. Moreover, the manufacturer and, in turn, the purchaser, may not be particularly concerned whether the machinery produced is equipped with the necessary safety devices. It is evident that laying all the responsibility for accident prevention on the workers places too much burden on them, and that effective protection could only be assured if the responsibility was shared equally by all those engaged in its production, purchase and use.83
The Maximum Weight Convention (No. 127), which came into force in March 1970, has been ratified by 24 ILO member States as at 30 June 1996. The Convention covers regular manual transport, including lifting and putting down, of loads by one worker and is applicable to all branches of economic activity. This Convention is relevant particularly to the meat industry where many workers suffer from back injuries from lifting and carrying heavy carcasses in non-mechanized workplaces. It provides that no worker shall be required to engage in the manual transport of a load which, by reasons of its weight, is likely to jeopardize his/her health or safety.
In applying this Convention, each member State is required to take appropriate steps to ensure that any worker assigned to the manual transport of loads receives adequate training or instruction in working techniques, with a view to safeguarding health and preventing accidents. It also advises the use, as much as possible, of suitable technical devices to limit or facilitate the manual transport of loads. And it recommends that loads carried by women and young workers be limited or substantially lighter than those allowed for adult male workers.
In addition to the provisions made in the above Convention, the accompanying Recommendation (No. 128) advises that there be a certified medical examination of fitness for employment and that it be repeated as necessary. With regard to technical devices, it recommends that the packaging of loads be compact, of suitable material, and equipped, as far as possible and appropriate, with holding devices, and designed as not to create risk of injury. Furthermore, it advises that 55 kg be set as the maximum permissible weight to be transported manually by one adult male worker.
With regard to the manual transport of loads by workers other than adult males, the Recommendation urges that, as far as possible, adult women workers not be regularly assigned to such work, and that the minimum age for such regular work be 18 years. Where it cannot be avoided, it suggests that their time spent on actual lifting, carrying and putting down loads be reduced as appropriate, and that certain arduous jobs be prohibited. It recommends, in particular, that no woman be assigned to such work during pregnancy or in the ten weeks following confinement if, in her physician's opinion, the work is harmful to her or her child's health.
The Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention (No. 148) and Recommendation (No. 156) were adopted in 1977. As at 30 June, 1996, a total of 38 ILO member States have ratified the Convention. Like others already discussed, this Convention is also applicable to all branches of economic activity. However, a ratifying State may exclude, after consultation with the social partners, certain branches from its application. Its application is also flexible in the sense that, after consultation with the social partners, a ratifying State may accept the obligations of the Convention separately in respect of air pollution, noise or vibration. Three of the 38 States that have ratified the Convention accepted the obligations in respect of air pollution only, while another State has accepted them in respect of air pollution and noise only. The rest have accepted them in respect of all three hazard areas.84
A State that has ratified this Convention is compelled by the provisions to prescribe measures, in the form of technical standards or codes of practice, for the prevention and control of, and protection against, occupational hazards in the working environment due to air pollution, noise and vibration. The competent authority is required to elaborate, in consultation with employers' and workers' representatives, the measures adopted for the practical implementation of the Convention. It is also obliged to establish criteria for determining the hazards of exposure to air pollution, noise and vibration and to specify their exposure limits, which are to be supplemented and revised in the light of up-to-date data.
The Convention requires employers to comply with the prescribed measures and workers with safety procedures relating to the prevention and control of hazards. If the measures fail to keep these hazards within the prescribed limits, workers need to be provided with PPE. The competent authority is required to regularly supervise these hazards. Workers or their representatives enjoy the right to present proposals, to obtain information and training and to appeal to appropriate bodies to ensure protection. The Convention also provides for tripartite collaboration where employers' and workers' representatives may accompany inspectors supervising the application of the measures prescribed in implementing the Convention.
The instruments discussed above deal with specific occupational hazards. The Occupational Safety and Health Convention (No. 155) and Recommendation (No. 164), on the other hand, aim to establish a systematic and comprehensive national policy on OSH for action at the enterprise level. They are applicable to all branches of economic activity. As at 30 June 1996, a total of 26 ILO member States have ratified this Convention.
Tripartite collaboration is the key factor for the effective application of this Convention and the accompanying Recommendation. Employers, for example, are responsible, in so far as is reasonably practicable, for ensuring the safety of the workplace, machinery, equipment and processes under their control. In addition, they need to take appropriate measures to ensure that the chemical, physical and biological substances under their control are without risk to health, and where necessary, provide adequate protective equipment to prevent any adverse effects on health. They need to provide measures to deal with emergencies, including first-aid facilities.
Workers, must cooperate with the employer by taking reasonable care of their own safety and of others who may be affected by their acts. They also need to inform their superior of any hazardous situation that they cannot correct themselves and to report any accident that occurs.
The other instruments that emphasize the need for tripartite collaboration are the Occupational Health Services Convention (No. 161) and Recommendation (No. 171), which aim to establish a coherent national policy on occupational health services. Adopted by the International Labour Conference in 1985, the Convention has been ratified by 15 ILO member States as at 30 June 1996.
This Convention and the accompanying Recommendation set out a comprehensive approach to keep the working environment safe and healthy through prevention and in a flexible manner, such as through the progressive development of occupational health services. Such services are to cover workers in all undertakings and establishments by means of laws, collective agreements or in any other manner approved by the competent authority in consultation with the social partners.
The services provided for in the Convention and Recommendation include surveillance of the working environment and of workers' health, participation in the design and implementation of training programmes in respect of health and hygiene and the provision of first-aid and emergency treatment in the event of accidents. These instruments stipulate that occupational health services should adopt a multidisciplinary approach, while the composition and the qualifications of the staff be determined in the light of the nature of their duties. Measures need to be taken to ensure adequate cooperation and coordination between such services and other bodies concerned. While the health service staff should be completely independent from employers and workers, they still require their full cooperation in obtaining relevant information to enable them to identify health hazards and factors related to diseases in the workplace.
Adoption of international labour standards, such as those discussed above, is an achievement to a certain extent. They may, to varying degrees, serve as the basis for national legislation even in countries that have not ratified them. However, they reach their maximum impact only when they are ratified by and applied thoroughly in the ILO member States. As mentioned above, a large number of the ILO member States have not yet ratified the Conventions relevant to these sectors. This may mean that many workers in these sectors are being denied adequate safety and health protection. In view of this situation, the ILO continues to promote these standards, e.g. through educational programmes, as regards the meat, poultry and fish processing industries, as well as other sectors.
Global production, consumption and trade of meat, poultry and fish products have increased as growing affluence in many countries is raising the per capita protein intake. In some countries where meat consumption has been relatively high, the demand for bovine meat, in particular, has declined, due mainly to the consumers' increasing preference for poultry and fish products that contain a lower level of cholesterol. The recent outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) has had, at least in the short term, and in Europe, a negative effect on the demand for meat products. Nevertheless, global meat consumption has risen, while the demand for poultry products has expanded rapidly in many parts of the world. Global fish catch also declined due to over-fishing in the past, but is being offset by fish and shellfish production from aquaculture. The production and consumption of these products are expected to continue to rise, along with economic development.
Global employment has also increased. The employment in the meat industry in some industrialized countries stagnated or declined due mainly to lower product demand, but also to the introduction of new technology. However, some countries, where domestic demand fell, still have managed to prevent the employment from falling too much by expanding their exports. In many developing countries, it is expected to continue to rise in response to growing demand. Employment in the poultry industry has risen remarkably in many countries, despite increased mechanization. Employment in the fish- processing industry declined in many industrialized countries, but is believed to have risen in many developing countries when their output in recent years is considered. In view of an increasing global demand for these products, the total employment is expected to grow further.
Available data show that employees are usually paid less than others in the food, drink and tobacco industries. Among these three groups, meat workers are usually paid more than others, while fish workers are paid the least. When men and women of similar skills are compared, women in all these sectors are paid less than their male colleagues.
It has been reported in some countries that work stress has increased in recent years. This is due partly to the gap in the levels of technology used. Many plants in these industries have undergone technological changes to increase productivity. However, certain tasks are still performed manually to ensure the products' values. Many cutters and deboners must therefore operate their knives manually. The gap in work speed between those with mechanical jobs and those with manual jobs sometimes creates tension, as the latter must adjust their work to the speed set by the former. This tension can cause stress to accumulate to the detriment of everyone concerned.
Frequency rates of accidents and diseases in these industries are generally much higher than those in other manufacturing industries in most countries where data are available. These three sectors share certain similarities that are attributed to their poor safety and health records: (1) the type of manual operation involving dangerous hand tools; (2) the gap in different levels of technology used, particularly when dangerous tools are involved; (3) the cold, wet and greasy work premises create perfect conditions which can easily lead to injuries; (4) perishable raw materials which sometimes carry dangerous micro-organisms can be the sources of contagious zoonosis, unless employees are trained to follow strict health measures during and after handling the materials.
Some improvement has been reported in safety and health records in these industries, but records have worsened in other respects. In some cases, despite improved accident/disease records, the total amount of compensation paid and the total number of workdays lost still increased due to a rise in the cost per case. The records need to be improved, which in turn will raise overall productivity.
Available information shows that these industries share features as to the types of accident and disease reported. The accidents include cuts, strains, sprains, bruises, fractures and smashing, and the disorders include the musculoskeletal, respiratory, auditory and circulatory systems, as well as zoonosis. A majority of the accidents take place in production areas, and machines, hand tools and the work environment are frequent causes of these accidents.
Compilation and analysis of data on accidents and diseases is the first step in assessing the hazards in the workplace, which should lead to appropriate measures to eliminate or minimize them. Such measures need to be monitored regularly and revised accordingly, since the work environment, machinery, tools and work methods are constantly changing. In order for such measures to be relevant and effective, both management and employees should help to identify risks, and propose solutions.
There are several measures that can deal effectively with safety and health problems. First, appropriate PPE needs to be provided. PPE does not eliminate risks, but it can protect workers if used properly. Secondly, machine guards must be properly installed. Machines should be designed so that their maintenance and cleaning can be done safely. Thirdly, ergonomics in the design of the workstation, tools, machines and work methods is essential in view of the many musculoskeletal disorders. Fourthly, an improved work environment and better housekeeping are the keys to safety and health. Better plant layout, adequate space for each worker, orderly storage, clear labelling of dangerous substances and adequate lighting can all improve OSH records. Fifthly, administrative control, or policies on job rotation, pauses, work speed and pre-employment medical screening, can minimize problems that are likely to result in injuries. Finally, measures against zoonosis, the origin and prevention of which are already known, include immunization, a high standard of personal and plant hygiene and the use of proper PPE. However, more information is needed about BSE in order to ensure preventive measures.
Employers are obliged by law in many countries to provide their workers with a safe work environment, while workers are expected to observe safety and health rules and regulations. By cooperating with each other and sharing and exchanging information, they can deal more effectively with safety and health problems. One form of shared work is through a safety and health committee, where the representatives of both sides discuss risks, investigate causes of accidents, propose corrective measures and follow-up on proposed measures. The committee members are also usually responsible for information dissemination to and training of their fellow colleagues. However, as statistics on workplace accidents and diseases suggest, much more educational and training programmes are needed.
Safety and health inspection systems are not satisfactory in most countries due to lack of an adequate budget and manpower. In general, inspectors make routine visits, special visits related to specific regulations, visits after complaints are made, follow-up visits to determine if changes have been made, and informative visits where information and/or training is provided. In order to maximize resources, the priority of the inspectors in the United States is to first visit places where there is imminent danger, fatal accidents, employee complaints and hazardous situations or substances. Their most recent focus is to identify the worst safety and health offenders through workers' compensation insurance claims and to give those offenders the choice of either participating in a comprehensive safety and health programme or risking traditional inspection approaches, possibly with penalties.
There are no ILO Conventions and Recommendations targeted specifically to OSH problems in these sectors. However, several Conventions are relevant. They include Convention No. 119 (guarding of machinery), 1963; Convention No. 127 (maximum weight), 1967; Convention No. 148 (air pollution, noise and vibration), 1977; Convention No. 155 (occupational safety and health), 1981; and Convention No. 161 (occupational health services), 1985. The rate of ratification of these instruments by member States, however, has been low.
82 S. Tomoda: Occupational safety and health in the food and drink industries, Sectoral Activities Programme Working Paper, SAP 2.35/WP.62, ILO, 1993.
83 ibid.
84 Information provided by the Application of Standards Branch, ILO.
