National Labour Law Profile: Russian Federation
Contributed by Vladislav Egorov. Last update, January 2002.
Constitutional framework
The
current Constitution
of the Russian Federation (hereafter “the
CRF”) came into force on 12 December 1993, following its approval by
nationwide referendum. It declares,inter alia, that the Russian
Federation is a democratic, federal, multi-ethnic republic, based on the
rule of law (Article 1). State power is divided between three separate but
equal branches of government - the legislature, the executive and the
judiciary (Article 10).
According
to Article 65 of the CRF, the Russian Federation is a federal State
consisting of 21 autonomous republics and 68 autonomous territories and
regions, including two federal cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg (89
constituents).
The
President of the Russian Federation, who is Head of State and
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, is elected to a term of four years
by the citizens of the Russian Federation on the basis of general, equal and
direct vote by secret ballot. The President may only be reelected to two
consecutive terms (Article 81 of the CRF).
Supreme
legislative power is vested in the bicameral Federal Assembly, which
consists of two chambers - the Council of the Federation and the State Duma
(Article 95 of the CRF). The Council of the Federation (178 seats) is filled
by the appointed representatives from each of the 89 federal constituents.
The members serve four-year terms. The State Duma consists of 450 deputies
who are elected to four-year terms. Half of the seats in the State Duma are
elected by proportional representation from party lists winning at least 5%
of the vote. The other half is elected from single member constituencies by
direct popular vote to serve four-year terms.
For a law
to be adopted, it has to be approved by the State Duma. It is then submitted
to the Council of the Federation. If the latter rejects the bill, a
conciliatory commission is created to overcome the contradictions. The
President may also reject the bill. His/her veto can, however, be overturned
by a two thirds majority of the total membership of the Council of the
Federation and the State Duma (Article 107 of the CRF).
The CRF explicitly defines the exclusive federal jurisdiction (Article 71 of the CRF). It also spells out the joint
jurisdiction of the Federation and its constituents (Article 72 of
the CRF). This joint jurisdiction also covers labour legislation (Article
72 (j) of the CRF). Outside of the exclusive jurisdiction of the Russian
Federation and the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and its
constituents, the latter exercise the entire spectrum of state power
(Article 73 of the CRF).
Executive power in the Russian Federation is vested in the Government of the
Russian Federation which consists of the Chairman of the Government of the
Russian Federation, Deputy Chairmen of the Government and federal ministers
(Article 110 of the CRF). The Chairman of the Federal government is appointed by the
President with the consent of the State Duma. If the State Duma on three occassions
rejects candidates proposed by the President, the President appoints a
Chairman of the Government, dissolves the State Duma and calls a new election
(Article 111 of the CRF).
The basic
rights and liberties in conformity with the commonly recognized principles
and norms of international law are recognized and guaranteed in the
Russian Federation and by the Constitution. The basic rights and
liberties of the human being shall be inalienable and shall belong to
everyone from birth. The exercise of rights and liberties of a human being
and citizen may not violate the rights and liberties of other persons
(Article 17 of the CRF). The rights and liberties of human being and of the
citizen shall have direct effect. They shall determine the meaning, content
and application of the laws, and the activities of the legislative and
executive branches and local self-government, and shall be secured by the
judiciary (Article 18 of the CRF). All people shall be equal before the law
and in the court of law. The state shall guarantee the equality of rights
and liberties regardless of sex, race, nationality, language, origin,
property or employment status, residence, attitude to religion, convictions,
membership of public associations or any other circumstance. Any
restrictions of the rights of citizens on social, racial, national,
linguistic or religious grounds shall be forbidden. Man and woman shall have
equal rights and liberties and equal opportunities for their implementation
(Article 19 of the CRF).
According
to Article 118 of the CRF, justice in the Russian Federation is administered
only by courts of law. All trials in all courts of law have to be open and
conducted on an adversarial and equal basis. (Article 123 of the CRF).
Courts of law are financed only out of the federal budget and financing
shall ensure full and independent administration of justice in accordance
with federal law (Article 124 of the CRF).
The Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation, which consists of 19
judges, is empowered with the right of constitutional review: a) federal
laws, normative acts of the President of the Russian Federation, the
Federation Council, State Duma and the Government of the Russian Federation;
b) republican constitutions, charters, as well as laws and other normative
acts of subjects of the Russian Federation published on issues pertaining to
the jurisdiction of bodies of state power of the Russian Federation and
joint jurisdiction of bodies of state power of the Russian Federation and
bodies of state power of subjects of the Russian Federation; c) agreements
between bodies of state power of the Russian Federation and bodies of state
power of subjects of the Russian Federation, agreements between bodies of
state power of subjects of the Russian Federation; d) international
agreements of the Russian Federation that have not entered into force. It
also resolves disputes over jurisdiction: a) between the federal state
bodies; b) between state bodies of the Russian Federation and state bodies
of the subjects of the Russian Federation; c) between supreme state bodies
of subjects of the Russian Federation.
Complaints about violation of constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens
can also be subject to constitutional review by the Constitutional Court of
the Russian (Article 125 of the CRF).
Labour rights in the Constitution
According
to Article 7 of the CRF, the Russian Federation is a social state, whose
policies shall be aimed at creating conditions, which ensure a dignified
life and the free development of man. It shall protect the work and health of
its people, establish a guaranteed minimum wage, provide state support for
family, motherhood, fatherhood and childhood, and also for the disabled and
for elderly citizens, develop a system of social services and establish
government pensions, benefits and other social security guarantees.
Article
37 of the CRF enumerates basic labour rights, including free choice of type
of activity and profession, prohibition of forced labour, working conditions
which meet safety and hygiene requirements, remuneration without any
discrimination, minimum wage established by federal law, protection against
unemployment, right to individual and collective labour disputes, right to
strike, guaranteed statutory duration of work time, days off and holidays,
and paid annual vacation. Article 30 of the CRF envisages that everyone
shall have the right to association, including the right to create trade
unions in order to protect one's interests.
According
to Article 55 of the CRF, the listing of the basic rights and liberties in
the CRF shall not be interpreted as the denial or belittlement of the other
commonly recognized human and citizens' rights and liberties. No laws
denying or belittling human and civil rights and liberties may be issued in
the Russian Federation. Human and civil rights and liberties may be
restricted by the federal law only to the extent required for the protection
of the fundamentals of the constitutional system, morality, health, rights
and lawful interests of other persons, for ensuring the defense of the
country and the security of the state.
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Labour legislation
From its
structural point of view, the system of labour legislation in the Russian
Federation can be characterized as “codified-plus”. Alongside
the Labour Code which brings together in a systematic manner a significant
number of statutory provisions concerning both the individual employment
relationship and industrial relations, there are some other pieces of labour
legislation which supplement and further develop the provisions contained in
the Labour Code.
Labour Code
The
history of Labour Codes in Russia goes back to the Labour Codes of 1918,
1922 and 1971. The later had been introduced on the basis of the USSR
Fundamentals of Labour Legislation dated 15 July 1970, which had been created as a legislative
framework for the entire Soviet Union. The current Labour Code of the
Russian Federation of 30 December 2001 (hereafter “the LC”) is
in force from 1 February 2002. It consists of 6 parts, 62 chapters and 422
articles which deal,inter alia, with the following major labour law
issues:
-
fundamentals of labour legislation (purposes of labour legislation; basic
principles of regulation; non-discrimination; prohibition of forced labour;
the system of labour legislation);
-
the respective competencies in labour law making of the Russian Federation
and of its constituents;
-
labour relations, their parties and grounds for establishment, including
employee’s and employer’s basic rights and responsibilities;
-
social partnership, including tripartite co-operation, collective
bargaining and workers’ participation;
-
contract of employment;
-
protection of workers' personal data;
-
conditions of work, including work time; rest time, including leave;
remuneration;
-
labour discipline;
-
health and safety;
-
women’s labour, including maternity protection;
-
youth (under 18 years of age) labour;
-
seasonal work, home work, domestic work, etc.;
-
work in a number of specific sectors, including education and
transportation;
-
protection of workers’ rights by the trade unions;
-
labour disputes settlement.
Other Labour Law enactments
The
following separate pieces of legislation (in their chronological order)
supplemented or further developed provisions of the LC:
-
The Employment of Population Act, of 1991 in its edition of 20.04.96 (last
amended on 7 August 2000);
-
The
Collective Agreements and Accords Act, 1992 (last amended on 1 May 1999);
-
The Settlement of Collective Labour Disputes Act, 1995 (last amended on
6 November 2001);
-
The
Trade Union Act, 1996;
-
The Russian Tripartite Commission for Regulation of the Socio-Labour
Relations Act, 1999;
-
The Russian Tripartite Commission on Regulation of Socio-Labour Relations
Act, 1 May 1999;
-
The Fundamentals of Health and Safety Act, 1999;
-
The Compulsory Social Insurance Against Occupational Accidents and Diseases
Act, 1998 (last amended on 25 October 2001);
-
The Insolvency (Bankruptcy) Act, 1997;
-
The Minimum Wages Act, 2000;
-
The Fundamentals of Public Service Act, 1995 (last amended on 7 November
2000).
According
to Article 422 of the LC, all other pieces of labour legislation have to be
put in compliance with the LC.
Other sources of Labour Law
According
to Article 90 of the CRF, the President of the Russian Federation issues
decrees and executive orders, which are binding throughout the territory of
the Russian Federation and may not contravene the CRF or federal laws. Such
orders and decrees represent an important source of labour law in the Russian
Federation.
Another
important source of labour law in the Russian Federation is decrees and
orders issued by the Government of the Russian Federation on the basis of
and pursuant to the CRF, federal laws and normative decrees of the President
of the Russian Federation. Should such decrees and orders contravene the
CRF, federal laws and the decrees of the President of the Russian
Federation, they may be repealed by the President of the Russian Federation
(Article 115 of the CRF).
A further
source of labour law in the Russian Federation is normative documents issued
by the Ministry of Labour and Social Development with a view to implementing
labour legislation in force in the Russian Federation. A number of other
federal executive bodies are also empowered to issue normative acts within
the powers given to them by federal legislation, decrees and orders of the
President or of the Government of the Russian Federation.
Since,
according to Article 72 (j) of the CRF, labour legislation falls within the
joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and its constituents, the
constituent level labour law regulation seems also to be a very important
source. While listing matters falling within the exclusive federal
jurisdiction, Article 6 of the LC empowers the constituents of the Russian
Federation to legislation on any other matter that goes beyond this
exclusive jurisdiction. In this case, a higher level of workers’
rights and social guarantees (as compared with what has been established by
federal laws) resulting in an increase of budget expenses or in a decrease
of budget revenues has to be ensured at the expense of the budget of a
respective constituent. The constituents of the Russian Federation can also
legislate on matters that have not been regulated at the federal level.
Upon the adoption of the federal level legislation on the same matter(s),
the respective constituent level legislation has to be brought in compliance
with the federal legislation. Should the constituent level labour law
regulation contradict the LC and any other federal level regulation or
diminish the level of workers’ rights and social guarantees ensured at
the federal level, the provisions of the LC or other federal level
regulation supercede the respective constituent regulation (Article 6 of the
LC).
Labour
regulations of local (municipal) self-governing bodies issued within their
competencies are also considered as a labour law source in the Russian
Federation. Such regulations shall not contradict the LC and other federal
and constituent level labour laws (Article 5 of the LC).
Bipartite
or tripartite agreements at national, industry, regional or territorial
level as well as enterprise level collective agreements also play an
important role in labour regulation. National level «general
accords» were introduced by the Presidential Decree on Social
Partnership and Disputes Settlement of 15 November 1991 as a new instrument
of labour policy. They are concluded on a tripartite and yearly basis
between the Federal Government and the most representative organizations of
employers and workers with a view to outlining the duties of the parties
involved in such areas as employment, welfare levels, wage levels, etc.
Together with one national general accord, 61 federal industry level accords,
77 regional level accords, 2293 regional industry level accords accords and
161,700
enterprise level collective agreements were concluded in the Russian
Federation in 2000 (See national weekly Economika i Jizn, March 2001
(No. 9)).
Case law
has traditionally played a role in labour regulation in the Russian
Federation. Constitutional reviews issued by the Constitutional Court of the
Russian Federation and interpretation of labour law provisions given by the
superior judicial bodies are not only binding on all lower judicial bodies
in the country, but also play an important role in the process of labour law
revision. Such reviews and interpretations assist the legislature to better
understand where and how to adjust the existing system of labour regulation
to make it more responsive to the newly emerging economic and social
concerns and thus more applicable.
International law is also considered as a source of labour law in the
Russian Federation. According to Article 15(4) of the CRF, the commonly
recognized principles and norms of international law and
international treaties signed by the Russian Federation constitute an integral part
of its legal system. If an international treaty signed by the Russian Federation
stipulates other rules than those stipulated by the labour law regulations
of the Russian Federation, the rules of the international treaty apply
(Article 10 of the CRF).
The scope of Labour Law
According
to Article 11 of the LC, the labour law regulations in the Russian
Federation are applicable to all workers who have entered into employment
relationships with employers. The application of the LC and other labour laws and regulations is
mandatory in the entire territory of the Russian Federation for all
enterprises (legal and physical entities) irrespective of their legal status
and form of ownership.
In the
cases when it is established by a court of law that a civil law contract in
fact regulates an employment relationship, provisions of labour law are applicable.
The labour law regulations in the Russian Federation are also applicable to
employment relationships with foreigners and persons without
citizenship, unless otherwise is provided by a federal law or an
international treaty of the Russian Federation.
Web links to Labour Law
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Contract of Employment
Article
56 of the LC defines “contract of employment” as an agreement
between an employer and employee, according to which the employer
undertakes:
-
to provide the employee with the assigned work;
-
to ensure conditions of work envisaged by labour law regulations or
contained in collective agreements and agreed upon in the contract of
employment; and
-
to pay employees' wages timely and in full;
and the employee undertakes:
-
to perform personally the assigned work; and
-
to follow the work rules existing at the enterprise.
Duration and form of contract of employment
According
to Article 58 of the LC, contracts of employment can be concluded either
without limit of time or for a specified period of time (hereafter
“fixed-term contracts of employment”). If a contract of
employment contains no provision on its validity period, this contract is
deemed to be executed for an indefinite time period.
Fixed-term contracts of employment are concluded when an employment
relationship may not be established for an indefinite duration due to the
character of the anticipated work (e.g. seasonal work) or the conditions of
its performance, unless otherwise envisaged by law. If none of the
parties demands the termination of a fixed-term contract of employment due
to its expiration and the employee continues to perform the same work, this
contract of employment is deemed to be executed without limit of time.
Article
59 of the LC (i) limits the use of fixed-term contracts to the reasons
specifically provided for in federal legislation and (ii) gives a
non-exhaustive list of such reasons.
A
fixed-term contract of employment concluded in the absence of satisfying
reasons to do so is deemed to be executed without limit of time. It is also
prohibited to conclude fixed-term contracts of employment with the aim of
unwillingness to grant rights and guarantees envisaged by law for the
employees being a party to a contract of employment concluded without limit
of time (Article 58 of the LC).
All
contracts of employment are required to be in writing (Article 67 of the
RFLC).
Probation
On the
conclusion of a contract of employment, probation may be stipulated by
agreement of the parties for the purpose of verifying the conformity of the
worker to the work entrusted to him or her. The condition for probation has
to be spelled out in the contract of employment. Its absence in the contract
of employment means that the worker concerned is employed without any
probation. During the probation, all provisions of labour law regulations and
respective collective agreements apply to the worker concerned. Probation
does not apply to persons admitted to work through:
-
competition;
-
election;
-
transfer from another enterprise; and
-
in other cases envisaged in the LC, other federal laws and collective
agreements.
The probation period shall not exceed three months. Probation for the
executive staff of enterprises should not exceed six months, unless
otherwise provided for by the federal legislation.
The
probation period does not include the worker’s absence due to his or
her temporary incapacity to work or any other period(s) during which the worker was
in fact absent from work (Article 70 of the LC).
If the
results of probation prove to be unsatisfactory, the employer is entitled to
terminate the contract of employment before the probation period has elapsed
with a three-day written notice explaining the reasons which have served as
grounds for qualifying the worker as having failed to pass the probation. The
worker concerned is entitled to appeal against the decision of the employer
in the court of law. If the results of probation are unsatisfactory, the
contract of employment is terminated without consultation with appropriate
trade union’s body and without payment of severance pay. If the
employer makes no decision on the termination of the labour contract before
the probation period has elapsed, the worker concerned is considered as
having passed the probation and his or her employment relationship can be subject
to termination on the usual terms applicable to contracts of employment.
The
worker concerned is empowered to terminate probation at his her initiative
any time with a three-day written notice (Article 71 of the LC).
According
to Article 23 of the Public Service Act, 1995, probation in the public
service may be extended to six months.
Discontinuation of contract of employment
Article
77 of the LC lists the following grounds for discontinuation of a contract
of employment:
-
mutual agreement of the parties (Article 78 of the LC);
-
expiration of a fixed-term contract, except for instances when the
employment relationship continues de facto and neither of the parties has
demanded its termination (Article 58(2) of the LC);
-
termination of the contract of employment at the initiative of the worker
(Article 80 of the LC);
-
termination of the contract of employment at the initiative of the employer
(Article 81 of the LC);
-
transfer of a worker, with his or her consent, to another enterprise or to
an elective post;
-
refusal of a worker to continue work because of the change of the employer
(Article 75 of the LC);
-
refusal of a worker to continue work because of the change(s) of essential
conditions of work (Article 73 of the LC);
-
refusal of a worker to transfer to another work because of illness (Article
72 of the LC);
-
refusal of a worker to transfer because of the employer’s moving to
another locality (Article 72 of the LC);
-
circumstances outside the parties’ will, such as conscription into
military service; reinstatement of the worker who previously performed
given work; failure to be (re)elected to a position to be filled through
election; imprisonment; complete disability due to illness; death; other
major circumstances (Article 83 of the LC);
-
infringement of labour law rules concerning the conclusion of a contract of
employment, should this infringement exclude the possibility of
continuation of work.
A fixed
term contract of employment is terminated on its expiration
(Article 79 of the LC).
Termination at the initiative of the worker. A contract of employment
can be terminated by a worker any time with a two-week written notice. Upon
the parties’ agreement, such termination may take place before the
two weeks have passed (Article 80 of the LC).
Termination at the initiative of the employer. Article 81 of the LC
provides for the exhaustive list of the following grounds upon which
contract of employment can be terminated at the initiative of the employer:
-
liquidation of the enterprise;
-
staff reduction;
-
unfitness of the worker for the assigned work due to:
-
state of health which prevent continuation of this work; or
-
insufficient skills;
-
change of the owner of the enterprise (applies to its top executives and
the chief accountant);
-
repeated failure on the workers's part to fulfill work duties without any valid reason
whatsoever, after disciplinary sanction has been applied;
-
single grave breach by the worker of his or her of work duties:
-
truancy (absence from work of more than three hours during the working
day) without justifiable reasons;
-
reporting to work in a state of alcoholic, narcotic or other form of
intoxication;
-
disclosure of state, official, corporate, commercial and other kinds of
confidential information that has become known to the work as a result of
fulfilling his of her work duties;
-
theft, squandering or deliberate destruction of property at workplace;
-
breach of heath and safety requirements, if it has had grave
consequences;
-
illegal action(s) of the worker to whom pecuniary or material values were
entrusted by the employer, if these actions create mistrust of the worker on the
employer’s part;
-
immoral offences committed by the worker performing educational duties
which are incompatible with the continuation of such work;
-
making groundless decisions by the top executives or chief accountant of
the enterprise resulting in property damages;
-
single grave breach by the top executives of the enterprise of their work
duties;
-
deliberate submitting in the course of hiring by the worker of falls
documents or information;
-
termination of the access to state secrets, if this access is required by
the assigned work;
-
other grounds set forth in the contract of employment with the top
executives of the enterprise;
-
in other cases envisaged in the LC or other federal laws.
Termination on the grounds specified under (2) and (3) are permitted only if
it is impossible to transfer the worker, with his or her consent, to other
work. Termination is not permitted during worker’s absence on sick or
annual leave.
A
contract of employment with the union representative(s) that may be terminated on
the grounds contained in paragraphs(2-b), (3) and (5) of Article 81 of the
LC is not permitted without the consent of the respective trade union
(Articles 374 and 376 of the LC).
Severance allowance.When a contract of employment is terminated due
to liquidation of the enterprise or reduction of personnel (Article 81(1)(2)
of the LC), the worker concerned is entitled to severance pay equal to his or her average
monthly salary. In the case of liquidation, the worker concerned retains his
or her average monthly salary for the duration of his or her job search, but no
longer than two months as of the date of termination (severance allowance
inclusive), and as an exception during the third month upon the decision of
the employment service, provided that the worker made an application within
two weeks after termination and no job was found for him or her.
Two-week
severance pay is paid to the workers whose contracts of employment are
terminated on the grounds specified in Article 81(3-a) and Article 83(1)(2)
of the LC.
A
contract of employment or a collective agreement contract may provide for
other cases of payment of severance pay, as well as its increased amounts
(Article 178 of the LC).
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Hours of Work
According
to Article 91 of the LC, the normal duration of the work time may not exceed
40 hours per week.
The
normal working hours shall be reduced by:
-
16 hours per week for workers under sixteen years of age;
-
5 hours per week for workers qualified as invalids of categories I and II;
-
4 hours per week for workers from sixteen to eighteen years of age;
-
4 and more hours per week for workers who work under hazardous, unhealthy
or dangerous conditions (Article 92 of the LC).
In the
event of night work, the established duration of work is to be reduced by one
hour (Article 96 of the LC).
According
to Article 99, overtime work is permitted upon the worker’s written
consent. In the following cases, it is permitted without the worker’s written
consent:
-
to perform work essential for the defense of the Russian Federation, as
well as to prevent production accidents or to eliminate their consequences;
-
to perform work necessary to the public good in the remedying of any unforeseen
distruptions in the functioning of water and gas supply, heating and
lighting, sewerage, transport and communications systems;
-
to complete work which was not possible to finish for technical reasons
within the normal working hours due to unforeseen delay, whereas
incompleteness of this work may entail technological damage or loss of
property;
-
to carry out temporary work towards the repair or restoration of
machinery or facilities, the inoperative state of which may lead to the
loss of work for a large number of workers;
-
to continue uninterruptible work, if the worker who has to perform this work
during the next shift fails to report to work.
Overtime
shall not exceed four hours during two consecutive working days and 120
hours per year.
Overtime
work is not allowed for workers under eighteen years of age (Article 286
of the LC) and pregnant women (Article 259 of the LC).
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Paid Leave
Article
115 of the LC provides for 28 work days annual paid leave
According
to Article 117 of the LC, additional paid annual leave is granted to
workers performing work with hazardous or dangerous conditions such as:
-
underground and open pit mining;
-
work in zones of radioactive contamination;
-
other work entailing unavoidable and unfavorable effects for human health
or harmful physical, biological, and other factors.
Lists of
industries, works, professions, and posts where
additional paid leave is mandated as well as minimum length and the terms of that leave are
established by the Government of the Russian Federation in consultation with
the Russian Tripartite Commission on Regulation of Socio-Labour Relations
(Article 117 of the LC).
Additional annual leave is also granted to some other categories of workers
referred to in Article 116 of the LC. Leave for the first year of work is
granted to workers upon the completion of six months of uninterrupted work at
the enterprise (Article 122 of the LC).
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Maternity protection and maternity leave
According
to Article 64 of the LC, it is prohibited to refuse to hire women for
reasons connected with pregnancy or the existence of children. Such a
refusal may be appealed in a court of law. Termination of a contract of
employment with pregnant women workers and women workers with children of up to three years of age, as well as with single mothers having children
of up to 14 years of age (crippled children - up to 16 years of age) at the
initiative of the employer is not allowed (Article 261 of the LC).
Article
253 of the LC limits the work of women workers in difficult,
hazardous or dangerous conditions, as well as underground work (except for
non-physical work or work involving sanitary and consumer servicing) to the
production cycles, jobs and professions approved by the Government of the
Russian Federation. This article also prohibits women workers
from being made to lift and manual carry loads exceeding the maximum
limit allowable for them.
Upon
medical prescription and her own request, production quotas and servicing
rates for a pregnant woman worker have to be reduced or she has to be
transferred to another job to preclude the possibility of harm arising from her conditions of work, while retaining the average remuneration paid
for her previous job (Article 254 of the LC).
According
to Article 255 of the LC, women workers are granted seventy calendar days
pre natal leave (in the event of the birth of two or more children
– eighty-four) and seventy calendar days post natal leave (or in the
event of a complicated delivery - eighty-six, and in the event of the
birth of two or more children - one hundred ten).
At the
woman worker’s request, paid leave is granted for the care of a child
until it reaches three years of age. This leave may also be taken by the
father of the child, grandmother, grandfather, or by other relatives who
actually care for the child (Article 256 of the LC). While on child-care, a
woman worker retains her job (Article 256 of the LC).
Business
trips, overtime work, night work, work on days off and holidays for pregnant
women are prohibited (Article 162 of the RFLC). Women who have children up
to three years of age from three to fourteen years of age (or disabled
children, up to sixteen years of age) may not be requested to work overtime
or go on business trips without their consent (Article 163 of the RFLC).
Women
with children up to one and a half years of age are entitled to take
additional breaks to feed their child. These breaks are granted every three
hours and must not be less than thirty minutes in duration. In the event of
two or more children up to the age of 18 months, the child feeding interval
shall be no less than one hour (Article 258 of the LC).
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Other leave entitlements
In cases
of temporary incapacity to work due to illness or work-related or other
injury, a benefit from the State social insurance is granted (Articles 183
and 184 of the LC).
For
family-related circumstances and other justifiable reasons, a worker may, on
applying, and with the authorization of the employer, be granted unpaid
leave the length of which shall be determined by an agreement between the
worker and the employer (Article 128 of the LC).
According
to Article 173 of the LC, workers, successfully studying in the state
accredited institutions of higher education by correspondence or at evening
courses, are entitled to additional paid leave in order to:
-
pass tests and exams (forty calendar days
each for the first and second courses; fifty calendar days for each course that follows);
-
prepare and defend diploma thesis (project) - four months;
-
pass graduate exams - one month.
Workers
are also entitles to leave without pay in order to:
-
pass entry exams to institutions of higher education - ten calendar days;
-
take preparatory courses for entry exams to institutions of higher
education – fifteen calendar days;
-
study in institutions of higher education on day course basis, combining
studies with work (for passing tests and exams - ten calendar days per
academic year; for preparing and defending diploma thesis (project) -
two-months, and for passing graduate exams - one-month.
^ top of the page
Minimum age and protection of young workers
Work of
persons under eighteen years of age in hazardous or dangerous conditions, in
the underground, as well as at jobs that harm their moral development and
health (gambling business, cabarets and night clubs, in production cycles,
transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages, tobacco goods, narcotic and
toxic compounds) is prohibited. It is prohibited for minors to carry or move
workloads in excess of the limits set for them. The list of jobs at
which work of persons under eighteen years of age is prohibited, as well as
allowable workload norms for them, is established by the Government of the
Russian Federation with due account for consultations with All-Russia trade
union associations and All-Russia associations of employers (Article 265 of
the LC).
Workers
under the age of 18 years are entitled to annual paid leave of 31 calendar
days (Article 267 of the LC).
It is
prohibited to send workers under eighteen years of age on business trips, to
engage them in overtime work, night work, work on weekends and during
holidays (Article 268 of the LC).
According
to Article 269 of the LC, termination of a contract of employment with
workers under eighteen years of age at the initiative of the employer (except in the case of liquidation
of the enterprise), besides observance of the general procedures set forth
in the LC, is permitted only with the consent of the respective labour
inspection body and municipal commission on protection of the rights of
minors.
^ top of the page
Equality
The
principle of equal treatment is laid down as a basic right in Article 19 of
the CRF, according to which the state guarantees equality of rights and
freedoms regardless of sex, race, nationality, language, origin, property
and official position, place of residence, attitude to religion,
convictions, membership in public associations, as well as of other
circumstances. This basic constitutional right is also set forth in
Article 3 of the LC: “Everyone has equal opportunities in exercising
labour rights. No one shall be restricted in labour rights and freedoms or
receive any privileges while exercising these rights and freedoms due to
sex, race, color, nationality, language, origin, propertied or official
status, age, place of residence, attitude to religion, political
convictions, affiliation or non-affiliation to public associations, as well
as other circumstances which are not associated with work qualities."
^ top of the page
Pay issues
The right
to be paid wages timely and in full in accordance with qualification,
complexity of work and its quantity and quality is one of the basic rights
of workers envisaged in Article 21 of the LC.
Wages are
to be paid in the monetary form in the currency of the Russian Federation
(rubles). Collective agreements or contracts of employment can envisage
other forms of wage payments, if this does not contradict federal law or
international treaties entered into by the Russian Federation. The amount of non-monetary
wage payments cannot exceed twenty per cent of the total amount of wages
(Article 131 of the LC).
According
to Article 133 of the LC, the monthly wage of a worker having worked out the
norm of working time and having fulfilled the labour standards (labour
duties) for the given period of time, can not be lower than minimum wage
established by federal law.
Article 134 of the LC provides for wage indexation. For budget financed
enterprises the procedure of indexation is established by law; for profit
financed enterprises this procedure is established in collective agreements
and other enterprise level documents.
The wage
systems, tariff rates, salaries, and various types of payments are set for:
-
employees of budget financed enterprises – by laws and other legal
instruments;
-
employees of enterprises with combined (budget and profit) financing
– by laws, other legal instruments, as well as by collective
agreements and other enterprise level instruments;
-
employees of other enterprises – by collective agreements ,
collective contracts, local normative instruments of organizations, and
other enterprise level instruments (Article 135 of the LC).
Wages are
to be paid at least once every two weeks (Article 136 of the LC).
Deductions from wages can be made only in the cases envisaged in the LC and
other federal laws. According to Article 137 of the LC, wage deductions with
a view to setting off workers’ indebtedness against the employer may be
effectuated in the following cases:
-
to be paid back for an advance payment on work that the worker failed to perform;
-
to pay off an advance payment made to the worker going on a business trip
or being transferred to another location, or for any economic expenses
associated therewith, that was not spent or not returned in due time;
-
to return any extra amounts paid to the worker as a result of accounting
mistakes;
- to compensate for days taken as vacation,
if worker is dismissal prior to the end of the working
year and he or she has already used up his or her annual vacation leave. No money shall be withheld for these days
if the employee is being dismissed for the reasons indicated in paragraphs
(1), (2), (3-a), and (4) of Article 81 and paragraphs (1), (2), (5), (6),
and 7 of Article 83 of the LC.
With each
payment of wages the total of all deductions shall not exceed 20 percent,
while in the cases specifically envisaged by federal law the latter may
amount to 50 percent. If wage deduction is made according to several
executive documents, the worker by all means retains 50 percent of his or
her wage (Article 138 of the LC).
The
employer delaying payment of wages or otherwise violating rules governing the payment of wages
is to be held liable in accordance with the LC and other federal laws.
In the event of a more than fifteen-day delay in the payment of wages, the worker
is entitled to suspend work until payment of
due wages is made, having notified the employer in writing (Article 142). In
the event of violation of the established procedures for the payment of wages,
leave, severance allowance and other payments due to the worker, the
employer shall be obliged to pay them with interest charged (monetary
compensation) in the amount of no less than 1/300 of the currently existing
re-financing rate of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation of the
delayed sums for each day of such delay starting on the next to follow date
as of the established payment date until the date of actual payments set
off, inclusive Article 236 of the LC).
^ top of the page
Trade union regulation
Freedom
of association is guaranteed by the CRF, according to which “everyone
has the right to association, including the right to establish trade unions
in order to protect one's interests" (Article 30(1)).
Trade
union activities are regulated by the Trade Union Act, 1996 (hereafter
“the TUA”) and by the LC. All workers (of at least fourteen
years of age) have the right to freely and independently establish trade
unions to protect their rights, to join trade unions, to become involved in
trade union activities and withdraw from trade unions without prior
authorization. Trade unions have the right to set up their own associations
at industry, territory or other levels. They have the right to cooperate
with trade unions of other states, to enter into international trade unions
and other associations and organizations, and to conclude treaties and
agreements with them (Article 2 of the TUA).
Trade
unions are independent in their activity from the organs of executive power,
the organs of local self-government, employers and their amalgamations
(unions, associations), political parties and other public entities, and
shall not be accountable to them or subject to their control. Any
interference by organs of state power, organs of local self-government and
their officials in the activity of trade unions which may entail a
restriction of trade union rights or hinder the legitimate exercise of their
legitimate activity, is prohibited (Article 5 of the TUA).
According
to Article 8 of the TUA, trade union registration is optional. It is
required only when a trade union would like to acquire legal personality. In
this case a trade union has to register with the Russian Federation Ministry
of Justice or its territorial agencies depending on the location of the
respective trade union. Denial of registration or evasion thereof may be
appealed in the court of law.
Workers participation
According
to Article 52 of the LC, the workers’ right to participate in the
management of the enterprise directly or through their representative bodies
is ensured in the LC, other federal laws, collective agreements and
enterprise level regulations. Main forms of workers' participation
are the following:
-
taking account by the employer of the opinion of the workers’
representative body in the cases specifically envisaged in the LC or
collective agreements;
-
employer’s consultations with the workers’ representatives on
the matters concerning the adoption of the enterprise level normative
regulations;
-
informaing the workers’ representatives on questions directly
affecting workers' interests;
-
discussions with the employer on matters concerning the functioning of
the enterprise;
-
participation of the workers’ representatives in collective
bargaining;
-
other forms provided for by the LC, collective agreements or enterprise
level regulations Article 53 of the LC).
^ top of the page
Collective bargaining and agreements
The
legislative framework for collective bargaining in the Russian Federation is
established by the LC and the Collective Agreements and Accords Act, 1992
(hereafter “the CAAA”). Article 40 of the LC defines collective
agreement as a legal act, which regulates socio-economic relations between
the employer and workers in an enterprise. While the term “collective
agreements” refers to the enterprise level bipartite collective
agreements, the term “accords” means agreements (bipartite or
tripartite) concluded at federal, industry, territorial or occupational
level (Article 45 of the LC and Articles 2, 18 of the CAAA) for a minimum
period of one year and a maximum period of three years (Articles 43 and 48
of the LC and Articles 14 and 22 of the CAAA).
According
to Articles 36 of the LC, both employers and workers’ representatives
are entitled to initiate collective bargaining. On receipt of a written
proposal to start collective bargaining the other party must within seven
calendar days enter into the negotiations.
In the
case of two or more primary trade union organizations existing in the
enterprise, they have to set up a joint bargaining representation body on
the basis of proportional union membership representation which has to
include all primary trade union organizations.
If such a
body fails to be established within 5 calendar days as of the moment of
beginning collective bargaining, the trade union representing over a half of
all employees is entitled to engage in collective bargaining. If none of the
trade unions represents over a half of employees, a general meeting
(conference) of the employees of the enterprise determines through a secret
ballot a trade union which is further authorized to conduct collective
bargaining. In both cases, other trade unions are entitled to nominate their
representatives to participate in collective bargaining.
Insofar
as national, industry and territory levels are concerned, the respective trade
unions or their associations are entitled to involvement in collective
bargaining. If there are several trade unions (or their associations) at
these levels, they have to set up a joint bargaining representation body on
the basis of proportional union membership representation which has to
include all primary trade union organizations. If such a body
fails to be established, the trade union (or association of trade unions)
representing the greater number of members is entitled participate in
collective bargaining (Article 37 of the LC).
The
parties to collective bargaining no later than two weeks as of the date of
receiving a written notification initiating collective bargaining
must provide each other with the necessary information. All rules concerning
the confidentiality of such information have to be respected. Time and place
of holding collective bargaining as well as its agenda are determined by the
parties themselves (Article 37 of the LC).
On
receipt of a written invitation to collective bargaining, the other party should
act on it within seven days (Article 6 of the CAAA). According to Articles
21 and 22 of the LC, one of the basic rights of the workers and obligations
of the employers is to participate in collective bargaining and to sign
collective agreements.
If, after the
three months following the initiation of collective bargaining, the
parties have failed to agree upon certain provisions of a negotiated collective
agreement, they (i) must sign an agreement with regard to the provision
on which they managed to agree; and (ii) simultaneously compile a protocol
of disagreements. Unsettled disagreements may become a subject of further
bargaining or be settled in accordance with the LC or other federal laws on
settlement of collective labour disputes. Collective agreements may be
signed with regard to an enterprise as a whole, its branch offices,
representations, and other structural divisions (Article 40 of the LC).
The
contents of collective agreements and accords are subject to their
parties’ consideration and negotiation. Article 41 of the LC and
Articles 13 and 21 of the CAAA provide a non-exhaustive list of the
issues which may be included in collective agreements or accords.
An
agreement (or accord) enters into force on the date of its signing by the
parties, or on the date stipulated therein (Articles 43 and 48 of the
LC).
Within
seven days of signing a collective agreement (or accord), the employer
(or employers’ representative body) must submit it to a relevant
labour administration body fornotificationregistration. Entry into
force of a collective agreement (or accord) does not depend on the fact of
registration. In registering a collective agreement (or accord) the labour
administration body, identifies provisions worsening the employees’
situation as opposed to the LC or other laws and regulations and informs
the representatives of the parties who have signed the collective agreement
(or accord), as well as notifies a relevant labour inspection body. Such
provisions are deemed invalid and shall not be applied (Article 50 of the
LC).
A
collective agreement applies to all employees of the enterprise (Article 43
of the LC). Provisions of an accord apply to:
-
employees and employers that authorized corresponding representatives to
sign an accord;
-
state and local self-government bodies which are parties to this accords;
and
-
employees and employers that adjoined the agreement after execution
thereof.
An accord
also applies to all of the employers being the members of an
employers’ association that executed the agreement. Termination of
membership in an employers’ association does not release an employer
from respecting the accord that was signed at the time of his membership. An
employer that entered the association while an accord remained valid, is
obligated to respect this accord.
In the
cases when industry agreement is signed at federal level, the head of the
federal labour administration body is entitled to invite the employers that
were not participating in this accord, to join it. If the employers failed to
declare their unwillingness within
30 calendar days of receiving the invitation, this accord is deemed applicable to
these employers as of the moment of receiving the above-mentioned invitation
(Article 48 of the LC).
Upon its
expiration, a collective agreement (or accord) remains in force until its
parties change it or conclude a new collective agreement or accord (Articles
14, 22 of the CAAA).
^ top of the page
Disputes settlement
Labour
Law of the Russian Federation provides for different settlement procedures
depending on whether the dispute is individual or collective. For individual
disputes procedural distinctions have been made depending on whether the
dispute is over the application of already existing standards governing conditions
of work (the so-called “dispute of rights”) or over the new
conditions of work or a change in existing conditions (the so-called
“interest dispute”).
Individual disputes settlement
Article
381 of the LC defines an individual labour dispute as a disagreements
between a worker and an employer concerning the application of labour
legislation and other normative acts, collective agreements and other
agreements on labour, and also the conditions of the contract of employment.
According to 382 of the LC, such disputes are considered by the labour
disputes settlement commissions (hereafter “the LDSC”) and by
the courts of law of general jurisdiction.1
The LDSC
is established at the employer’s or workers’ initiative and
consists of equal number of their representatives. Workers’
representatives are to be elected at the general meeting (conference) of the
enterprise. The employer’s representative is to be appointed by the
chief executive of the enterprise (Article 384 of the LC). The worker may
appeal to the LDSC within three-month period from the date, when he or she
learned or could have learned about violation of his or her rights. In the
case of missing established deadline for respectful reasons, the LDSC can
restore it and take on the dispute for consideration (Article 386 of the LC).
The
dispute has to be considered by the LDSC within ten calendar days from the
date of the receipt of the worker’s application. Consideration of a
dispute in the absence of the worker is permitted only upon his or her
written consent (Article 387 of the LC). A decision is taken by the LDSC by
a simple majority of its members participating in the consideration of the
dispute (Article 388 of the LC). If the LDSC has not considered the dispute
within ten days, the worker has the right to withdraw his or her appeal and
submit the case before a court of law. If the LDC has considered the
dispute but the worker disagrees with the decision, he or she can submit the
case before a court of law within ten days (Article 390 of the LC).
In some
cases an individual dispute of rights can be submitted directly (i.e.,
without its consideration by the LDSC) to a court of law. These cases
include,inter alia, the following situations:
-
the worker’s appeal for:
-
reinstatement, irrespective of the grounds for the termination of the labour
contract,
-
changes in the date and wording of the grounds for termination;
-
payment for the time of involuntary absence at the work place;
-
the employer’s appeal for compensation by the worker of damages
inflicted by this worker to the enterprise;
-
the person’s appeal in the case of:
-
the employer’s refusal to hire; and
-
discrimination.
As a
general rule, an individual dispute of rights can be submitted to the court
within a three-month period; in the case of termination at the
employer’s initiative – within a one-month period. The employer
can appeal for compensation of damages inflicted by the worker within a
one-year period (Article 329 of the LC).
According
to Article 393 of the LC, workers are relieved from paying duties and court
expenses.
If the
body considering the individual rights dispute finds the dismissal or
transfer of the worker unjustified, the worker is to be reinstated by this body.
Furthermore, the body considering the dispute awards the worker his or her average
earnings for the entire period of forced absence from work or with a
difference in the earnings for the entire period of his or her work at a
lower paid positions. Upon the worker’s application, the body considering
the dispute may limit its decision to compensation only and to change(s) in
the wording of the grounds for his or her termination.
Collective disputes settlement
Article
398 of the LC defines collective labour disputes as unresolved differences
between workers and employers concerning:
-
the establishment of new or a change in the existing conditions of work
(including wages);
-
the conclusion, change and implementation of collective agreements and
accords; and
-
the employer’s refusal to take into account the view of the
workers’ representative, while making decisions of a normative nature
at the enterprise.
Conciliation procedures mean consideration of a collective labour dispute
by:
-
the conciliation commission;
-
the parties themselves with the participation of amediator; or
-
the labour arbitration.
Conciliationis a mandatory stage in the collective labour disputes
settlement procedure. To this end, a conciliation commission consisting of
an equal number of representatives of the parties to the dispute has to be
established within three working days from the beginning of
the dispute. The employer does not have the right to refuse to create a
conciliation commission or participate in its work. The conciliation
commission has five working days to consider the dispute. The decision taken
by the conciliation commission has binding force on the parties to the
dispute. If the parties prove to be unable to agree on a conciliation
commission, they submit the dispute to a mediator or to the labour
arbitration (Article 402 of the LC).
Mediation procedure follows unsuccessful conciliation. For this purpose
the parties to the dispute may invite within three working days a mediator.
If necessary, they parties may ask the Collective Labour Disputes Settlement
Service (hereafter “the CLDSS”), which is a state agency, to
recommend the candidature of such a mediator. The mediator has seven working
days to resolve the dispute. If within 3 working days the parties fail to
reach an agreement regarding the candidature of a mediator, they shall
initiate labour arbitration procedure (Article 403 of the LC).
Labour
arbitrationis a provisional body (ad hoc) established by the parties to
the dispute and the CLDSS within three days from
completion of the consideration of the dispute by the conciliation commission or a
mediator, provided that the parties to the dispute agreed in writing to
respect the decision(s) taken by this body. The composition, procedures and
powers of labour arbitration are defined by the joint decision taken by the
employer, workers’ representative and the CLDSS. Labour arbitration
considers a dispute with the participation of its parties within five
working days (Article 404 of the LC).
In the case of the
employer’s refusal to establish labour arbitration or implement the
decision(s) taken by labour arbitration, the workers may resort to a strike
(Article 406).
^ top of the page
Strikes and lockouts
The right
to strike is a constitutional right in the Russian Federation (Article 37 of
the CRF). Article 398 of the LC defines a strike as worker’s
temporary and voluntary refusal of a worker to fulfill their work duties,
(entirely or in part) with the intention being the settlement of a collective labour dispute.
Participation in a strike is voluntary. Nobody can be forced to participate
or to refuse participation in a strike (Article 409 of the LC).
The
decision to declare a strike is made by a general meeting (conference) of
the workers of an enterprise or by a trade union or by a trade union
association and is considered adopted if not less than half of those present
at a meeting (conference) vote for it. Such meeting (conference) is deemed
valid if minimum two thirds of total number of workers, members of a trade
union or conference delegates participate in it. A written notice about the
forthcoming strike has to be submitted to the employer at least ten calendar
days in advance. After five calendar days of the completion of the work of the
conciliation commission, there may be a singular one-hour warning strike,
about which the employer is to be notified in writing three working
days in advance. In this case, minimum essential services remain operational
during this strike (Article 411 of the LC).
During
the strike, minimum essential services the stoppage of which may create an
immediate threat to life and health of the population have to be ensured.
The lists of such services are defined by the respective federal state
bodies in consultation with the respective nation-wide trade union
(con)federations. In the case of failure to ensure minimum essential
services, the strike may be recognized illegal (Article 412 of the LC).
In
accordance with Article 55 of the CRF, a strike may also be considered
illegal in the following cases:
-
during war or a state of emergency;
-
in the armed forces;
-
in law enforcement agencies;
-
in security service;
-
in the essential services, if the strike would endanger the country’s
defense or national security, as well as the lives or health of the population.
Decisions
to declare a strike unlawful may be taken by a respective court of law. In
the case of an immediate threat to lives and health of the population,
the court may postpone the strike, not yet started, for the term maximum 30
days, while the strike which already started, - to suspend it for the same
period of time (Article 413).
Participation in a legal strike may not be considered as a breach of labour
discipline or as grounds for termination of the contract of employment. Participation in an illegal strike, however, may. During a strike workers participating in
it retain their jobs. The employer has the right not to pay workers their
wages during their participation in a strike, except those workers who keep
the minimum essential services operational. Payment for idle time is due to
the workers not participating in a strike and not having the opportunity to
perform their work in connection with it. The employer has the right to
transfer such workers to other work for the period of the strike (Article
414 of the LC).
Article
415 of the LC prohibits lockouts.
^ top of the page
ILO Conventions ratified by the Country
The
Russian Federation was a member of the ILO from 1934 to 1940. In 1954 its
membership was renewed. See
Conventions
ratified by the Russian Federation.
^ top of the page
Web links
^ top of the page
Official gazette
- Rossiyskaia Gazeta, Moscow, 1990-
- Sobranie Zakonodatelstva Rossijskoj Federatcyi, Moscow, 1993-
^ top of the page
Selected publications
-
A. Aslund: How Russia became a market economy. Washington,
Brookings Institution, 1995.
-
M. V. Baglai: Creation of a new system of labor relations in
Russia: Theses. Problems of Economic Transition (Armonk) 35 (5),
September 1992.
-
J. Blasi: D. Panina: Emerging industrial relations
system in Russia's privatized enterprises. Labor Law Journal (Chicago)
45 (8), August 1994.
-
Amy J. Bliss: Proletariat to Perestroika: A Comparison of Labour
Law in the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation. Comparative Labour
Law Journal; Volume 18, Number 2, Winter '97.
-
M. Boycko, A. Schleifer, R. W. Vishny: Privatizing Russia.
Cambridge, MIT Press, 1995.
-
S. Braguinsky and G. Yavlinsky: Incentives and institutions : the
transition to a market economy in Russia. Princeton, N.J. Princeton
University Press, 2000.
-
S. Clarke: The formation of a labour market in Russia.
Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar, 1999.
-
Linda J. Cook: Labor and liberalization : trade unions in the new
Russia. New York: Twentieth Century Fund Press, 1997.
-
Paul T. Christensen: Russia's workers in transition : labor,
management, and the state under Gorbachev and Yeltsin. Dekalb: Northern
Illinois University Press, 1999.
-
G. M. Danilenko and B. L. Smith: Law and democracy in the new
Russia. Washington, 1993.
-
V. Egorov: Settlement of labour disputes in the USSR.
A paper submitted to the National Seminar on Labour Disputes Settlement
for China
(Beijing, 3-8- October 1988). Geneva, ILO, 1989.
-
V. Egorov: The reform of Soviet labour legislation: Problems and
prospects. Columbia Journal of Transitional Law, Vol. 28, No. 1,
1990.
-
V. Egorov: Recognition and the role of employers’ and
workers’ organizations in collective bargaining. A paper submitted
to the European Conference on Tripartism (Bratislava, 19-22 September
1994). Bratislava, 1994.
-
V. Egorov: Privatization and labour relations in the countries of
Central and Eastern Europe. Industrial Relation Journal (Blackwell
Publishers). Vol. 27, No. 1, March 1996.
-
F. J. M. Feldbrugge: Russian Law: The end of the Soviet System and
the role of Law.Dordrecht/Boston/London, 1993.
-
K. N. Gusov: Kommentariy k Kodeksu Zakonov o Trude.
Smolensk, Izdatelstvo PROSPEKT, 1997.
-
J. W. Hahn (ed.): Democratization in Russia: The development of
legislative institutions.Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, 1996.
-
F. Hoffer: Traditional trade unions during transition and economic
reform in the Russian Federation. Interdepartmental Action Programme
on Privatization, Restructuring and EconomicDemocracy; Enterprise and
Cooperative Development Dept., International Labour Office. Geneva, ILO,
1997.
-
Human rights and legal reform in the Russian Federation. New York,
1993.
-
S. A. Ivanov: Rossiiskoe trudovoe pravo : istoriia
i sovremennost'. Gosudartsvo i Pravo. Moskva : Nauka. No. 5, May
1999.
-
A. M. Kurennoi: Proizvodstvennaia demokratiia i trudovoe pravo.
Moskva : MGU, 1989.
-
R. Z. Livshitz: Trudovoe zakonodatelstbo: Hactoiashee
i budushee. Moskvy, Nauka, 1989.
-
M. Ravallion and M. Lokshin: Who wants to redistribute?:
Russia's tunnel effect in the 1990s. Washington DC, World Bank, Development
Research Group, Poverty and Human Resources, 1999.
-
M. Ryan: Social trends in contemporary Russia: A
statistical source book. New York, St. Martin's Press, 1993.
-
D. Sachs Jeffrey and K. Pistor (ed.): The rule of
law and economic reform in Russia. Boulder, Colo.: WestviewPress,
1997.
-
Social priorities and mechanisms of economic transformation in
Russia. Problems of economic transition: a journal of translations
from Russian. Armonk, N.Y. M.E. Sharpe. Vol. 41, no. 5, September 1998.
-
J. E. M. Thirkell, K. Petkov and S. A. Vickerstaff: The
transformation of labour relations: Restructuring and privatization in
Eastern Europe and Russia. Oxford, New York. Oxford University Press,
1998.
-
SA. Vickerstaff, J. Thirkell, R. Scase: Transformation
of labour relations in Eastern Europe and Russia: a comparative assessment.
International Journal of Comparative Labour Law and Industrial Relations
(Deventer), 10 (4), Winter 1994.
-
Trudovoe pravo I pravo socialnogo obespecheniya: Aktualnie problemi.
Moskovskaia Gosudarstvennaia Juridicheskaia Akademia. Moskva, 2000.
-
D. Yergin, T. Gustafson: Russia 2010. 2d ed.,
New York, Vintage Books, 1995.
1.There are no labour courts in the
Russian Federation.
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