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Annotated bibliography

Abecassis, David (1990). Identity, Islam and Human Development in Rural Bangladesh, University Press Limited, Haka, 135 pp.

Premise that to help the poor, we have to understand not just how power and resources are distributed, but also what it is like to be poor in rural Bangladesh - focus on growing as a human being. Role of Islam. Structure of village society. Conscientisation. Rather superficial analysis of the link between world view and poverty (pp. 51-73). Power structure in village excludes women (physical separation, status, long working hours, low self-image) and the poor who do not express themselves collectively. Experience of powerlessness has shaped the world-view: acceptance of evil, belief in fate and jati contribute to inertia concerning their lot and poverty; position of women both cause and effect.

Afridi, M. A. Zaheer (1989). Catch 22: The Poverty of Politics. A Study of Social Welfare Planning and Policy Analysis, Pakistan Academy for Rural Development, Peshawar, 219 pp.

Study and critique of social welfare, social class, social policy, politics of poverty, and poor relief in the west, particularly UK and US (which could be used by Pakistani policy makers, what they can learn is that poverty ameliorating approach providing cushion to the poor in time of crisis has not been efficacious in eradicating poverty).

Ahluwalia, M. S. (1990). "Policies for Poverty Alleviation", in Asian Development Review, Vol.8, No.1, Manila, pp. 111-132.

The reduction of poverty is now part of many development strategies and an explicit target of national policies. The question is which policy is more likely to achieve this goal. The extent of poverty is seen as a result of distribution of income earning assets across households and the rate of return earned by these assets. Discussion on indirect and direct approaches of poverty alleviation through promotion of growth and targeted programmes for the poor, mainly wage and self-employment promotion. The author recommends a mixed strategy with the direct approach seen as social safety net and in which the need for the direct approach diminishes gradually.

Ahmad, Etisham, Jean Drèze, John Hills, and Amartya Sen (eds.) (1991). Social Security in Developing Countries, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Akanda, Safar A.; Aminul Islam (eds.) (1991). Rural Poverty and Development Strategies in Bangladesh, Institute of Bangladesh Studies, Rajshahi University.

Akram-Lodhi, A. Haroon (1993). "Agrarian Classes in Pakistan: An Empirical Test of Patnaik's Labour-Exploitation Criterion", in Journal of Peasant Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, July, pp. 557-589.

Marxist analysis of agrarian change, peasant differentiation. Fetters on polarisation and accumulation - coexistence of capitalist and non-capitalist production and reproduction. Numerical dominance middle (and small) peasants. Exchange labour widely used. Entry into labour market segmented on the basis of sex.

Alam, Mustafa (1988). A Comparative Evaluation of Major Special Employment Creation Schemes in Bangladesh. An Analysis of Primary Level Data, Asian Employment Programme Working Papers, ILO/Artep, New Delhi.

Performance of special employment creation programmes of Bureau of Manpower Employment and Training, Grameen Bank, Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation, Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee. Efforts directed towards creation of micro-level employment opportunities in context of failure macro-investment policies to generate employment. Schemes do not reach the poorest among the unemployed.

Alamgir, M. (1974). "Some Analysis of Income, Consumption, Saving and Poverty in Bangladesh", in The Bangladesh Development Studies, 11, 4, pp. 737-818.

Alamgir, M. (1978). Bangladesh: A Case Study of Below Poverty Level Equilibrium Trap, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka.

Alamgir, Mohiuddin and Sadiq Ahmed (1988). "Poverty and Income Distribution in Bangladesh", in T. N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.), pp. 11-38.

1. Trends of poverty 1950-70. 2. Determinants of poverty and inequality: inequality of distribution of assets, particularly landholding, high population growth rate; intrasectoral and intersectoral inequalities; diffusion HYV techniques; inequality in access to education and other public services. 3. Policy frame for poverty alleviation. Objectives planned economic development. Policy in recent years: (a) redistribution assets (land reform, nationalisation) - not substantive; (b) employment policy - not pursued; (c) education policy - has not improved pattern income distribution; (d) rural institutions - in past redistributional impact negative; (e) government expenditure social services - very little distribution; (f) price policy (industrial, agriculture, interest, tax). 4. Implications of policy measures to reduce poverty.

Allaudin, Mohammed, and Clem Tisdell (1989). "Poverty, Resource Distribution and Security: the Impact of New Agricultural Technology in Rural Bangladesh", in Journal of Development Studies, Vol.17, No.4, pp. 550-569.

Relationship agrarian change and rural poverty. Bangladeshi evidence of growing concentration land control, new agricultural technology, ancillary resources. Increasing incidence landlessness and near landlessness has resulted in greater dependence wage employment. Non-exchange component of income significant, increasingly in bad years. Cushioning effect of access to natural resources has become more limited.

Alavi, Hamza and John Harriss (eds.) (1989). South Asia. Sociology of "Developing Societies", Macmillan, Hampshire/London.

Amhad, R. (1986). "Impact of Workers Remittances from the Middle East on Pakistan's Economy: Some Selected Issues", in The Pakistan Development Review, Vol. XXV, No. 4, Winter.

Amjad, Rashid (ed.) (1989). To the Gulf and Back. Studies on the Economic Impact of Asian Labour Migration, UNDP/ILO, Geneva.

Rashid Amjad, "Economic Impact of Migration to the Middle East on the Major Asian Labour Sending Countries - An Overview", pp. 1-27. Small part on impact on poverty and income distribution (p. 20-21). Migrants not from poorest strata, minimal resources had to be available. But overall favourable impact on poverty alleviation, e.g. in Pakistan where poverty levels declined. But overseas employment may have inflationary impact contributing to increasing inequality. (See also W. Mahmud on Bangladesh; impact on migrants' families (p. 78 ff) - migrants do not come from poorest families.)

Appadurai, A. (1984). "How Moral is South Asia's Economy? A Review Article", in Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. XLIII, No. 3, May, pp. 481-97.

Discussion of number of studies related with famine and poverty, mainly about India, to illustrate the "interplay of moral and political processes and the way in which they affect institutions that regulate access to food". Amartya Sen "Poverty and Famines" (1982): Appadurai's only reservation is its excessively legalistic view of social relations, need for moral or cultural dimension - he suggests concept of enfranchisement, capability to make decisions about entitlements. Greenough "Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal" (1982), moral interpretation of patterns of family breakdown. McAlpin "Subject to Famine" (1983) about western India under colonial rule. Maclachlan "Why They Did Not Starve" (1983) biocultural approach, based on fieldwork in village near Bangalore: intensification of agriculture had increased productivity, inequality and ideologies. Kathleen Gough "Rural Society in Southeast India" (1981), political economy, based on 2 villages in Thanjavur.

Arens, Jenneke and Jos van Beurden (1977). "Classifying Peasants in a Village of Bangladesh", in The Journal of the Institute of Bangladesh Studies, 2, pp. 143-161.

Anthropological study of village, focus on inequalities and exploitation, wage earners, double exploitation women.

Bagchee, Sundeep (1987). "Poverty Alleviation Programme in the Seventh Plan: An Appraisal", in Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXII, No. 4, 24 January, pp. 139-148.

Review rural poverty alleviation programmes in light of experience Sixth Plan. Programmes suffer from lack of conceptual clarity and inadequate understanding of environment in which they are implemented. Need to take into account environmental factors, assessing capacity administrative machinery, clarity about objectives, role of different levels in organisational structure.

Balakrishnan, N. (1985). "Sri Lanka as a Welfare State: an Overview", in Economic Review, 11, 4/5, pp. 45-53.

Ballard, Roger (1983). "The Context and Consequences of Migration: Jullundur and Mirpur Compared", in New Community, Vol. XI, No. 1/2, Autumn/Winter, pp. 117-36.

Migration to Britain: majority from Punjab, most from Jullundur Doab in India and Mirpur district in Pakistan. Two districts differ strikingly in economic success: Jullundur in boom, Mirpur stagnating. Emigration (from Jullundpur) not precipitated by grinding poverty. Emigration not driving force of growth in Jullundpur, but local entrepreneurial activity; remittances facilitated. Similar flow of remittances precipitated economic decline in Mirpur, ever more dependent.

Banerjee, Nirmala (1985). Women Workers in the Unorganized Sector. The Calcutta Experience, Sangam Books, Hyderabad.

Banerjee, Nirmala (1989). "Working Women in Colonial Bengal: Modernization and Marginalization", in Sangari, Kumkum and Sudesh Vaid (eds.): Recasting Women: Essays in Colonial History, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1990, pp. 269-301 (first published by Kali for Women, New Delhi, 1989).

Analysis of the reason why impact of modernisation on women was different from impact on men (and different from the British pattern). The modern sector: decline of female participation 1900-1931, women pushed out by men. Traditional sector: concentration of women in agriculture, as result of fall in traditional activities of making and selling goods. Women's traditional role (crafts, caste-specific occupations) became redundant while gains in modern sector were negligible. Cultural restrictions on labour participation.

Banerjee, Nirmala (1992). "Poverty, Work and Gender in Urban India", Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta.

Bardhan, K. (1985). "Women's Work, Welfare and Status", in Economic and Political Weekly, 20.

Bardhan, P. K. (1985). "Poverty and `Trickle-Down' in Rural India: a Quantitative Analysis", in Mellor, J. and G. Dessai (eds.).

Bardhan, P. and A. Rudra (1986). "Labour Mobility and the Boundaries of the Village Moral Economy", in Journal of Peasant Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3, April, pp. 90-115.

Survey in 80 villages in West Bengal 1981-2: significant but varying evidence of territorial segmentation of the rural labour market and limited labour mobility. Personal connections and trust between employers and workers credit are more important than short-run wage differences, and these affinities are cemented by regular consumption credit and wage advances. Literature on "moral economy" of peasant societies (Scott-Popkin debate): "the moral economic system in ensuring a subsistence wage for all the poor peasants is no longer (if ever) operative and the old patron-client yajmani relationship of sharing based on the caste system is largely obsolete."

Bennet, Lynn (1992). Women, Poverty and Productivity in India, Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, EDI Seminar Paper Number 43, March, 90 pp. Review in Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, December, pp. 115-117.

Berreman, Gerald D. (ed.) (1981). Social Inequality. Comparative and Developmental Approaches, Academic Press, New York.

First chapter by Berreman: "Social Inequality: A Cross-Cultural Analysis". Typology of social inequality. Types and dimensions of stratification. Caste. André Béteille: "The Idea of Natural Inequality".

Béteille, André (1981). The Backward Classes and the New Social Order, Oxford University Press.

Béteille, André (1983). The Idea of Natural Inequality and Other Essays, Oxford University Press.

Bhaduri, Amit, Hussain Zillur Rahman and Ann-Lisbet Arn (1986). "Persistence and Polarisation: a Study in the Dynamics of Agrarian Contradiction", in Journal of Peasant Studies, Vol.13, No.1, April, pp. 82-89.

Process of polarisation increasing landownership versus landlessness does not occur: stability of land ownership pattern. Polarisation itself generates a contradictory process of stabilisation of small peasantry through creation of supplementary income opportunities: land transfer activates market for agricultural labour and land leasing, which creates supplementary income opportunities. Persistence of a large number of small-owners amidst the process of polarisation.

Bhagwati, J. (1988). "Poverty and Public Policy", in World Development, Vol. 16, 1988, No. 5, pp. 539-555.

Polemic article/lecture discussing alternative economic policies: indirect (growth oriented) - direct (distribution) route. India's growth-oriented policies were not an end in itself, but a means to improve conditions of poor, activist and interventionist assault on poverty. Disputes (but not disproves) "immiserising growth theory" (Ghose and Griffin, 1979). Etienne (1982) shows that growth has pushed several of the poor on in life; Ahluwalia (1985); Bhalla and Vahishta (1985). Direct route: trade-off remains. Overstated case of Sri Lanka - shows advisability of assigning primacy to growth-oriented route to ameliorating poverty.

Bhalla, S. (1988). "Is Sri Lanka an Exception? A Comparative Study in Living Standards", in T. N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan, pp. 89-117.

Achievement basic needs remarkable for its per capita income: high standard of living, large proportion of government's expenditure on social welfare. But contradicts analysis of Isenman, Sen, Fields etc. who attribute this to recent large welfare expenditures. Sri lanka was comparatively rich in 1960, exceptionally low death rates and high literacy rates in 1946-48; not all indicators have improved in period 1960-75 (absolute poverty may even have increased). Critique by Sen in same book (p. 449-66) and reply Bhalla (pp. 557-65).

Bhalla, Surjit S. and Paul Glewwe (1986). "Growth and Equity in Developing Countries: A Reinterpretation of Sri Lankan Experience", in The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 35-63.

In debate basic-needs versus economic growth, Sri Lanka cited as country which has successfully pursued direct approach: raised living standards without much reduction growth. But these analyses do not account for initial situation: improvement of living standards and per capita growth were not exceptional. During 1977 and 1984 growth-promoting strategies: higher economic growth; no significant change expenditure inequality; consumption expenditure increased, also of poor; living standard indicators continued to improve.

Bhalla, Surjit S. and Paul Glewwe (1987). "A Response to Comments by Graham Pyatt and Paul Isenman", in The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 533-536.

Bhalla, Surjit S. and Prem Vashishtha (1988). "Income Distribution in India - A Re-examination", in T. N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.), pp. 39-68.

Conclusion: NCAER household survey 1975/76 underestimates household income - adjusted. In international perspective, income distribution fairly equal. NCAER surveys could not be used for derivation of trends in absolute poverty and inequality; but survey 1970/71 and 1975/76 comparable - no trend in inequality measures; slight decline absolute poverty.

Bhandari, Shailesh Ram (1990). "Poverty in Nepal: A Case Study of Bhaktapur District", in The Economic Journal of Nepal, Vol. 13, No. 2, Issue 50, April-June, pp. 117-126.

Establishes poverty line: calorie requirement. Measures extent of poverty. Highlights nature of problem: occupation, land holding, household size, illiteracy, ethnic group, suggests policy programmes.

Bhattacharya, N., G.S. Chatterjee and Padmaja Pal (1988). "Variations in Level of Living Across Regions and Social Groups in Rural India, 1963/1964 and 1973/194", in T. N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.), pp. 154- 218.

NSS household budget data, 18th round, for comparison of states. Section 5 (p. 200-3) compare levels of living across social groups: scheduled castes, other Hindus, Muslims and scheduled tribes; measured as average per capita household consumer expenditure (PCE). PCE for ST and SC about 80 per cent of general rural population; Muslims 5 per cent below average.

Bienen, Henry (1984). "Urbanization and Third World Stability", in World Development, Vol. 12, No. 7, pp. 661-691.

Bose, Nirmal Kumar (1968). Calcutta: 1964. A Social Survey, Lalvani Publishing House, Bombay.

Bose, S. R. (1968). "Trend of Real Incomes of the Rural Poor in East Pakistan, 1963-64", in Pakistan Development Review, 8, 3, pp. 452-488.

Boyce, J. K. (1987). Agrarian Impasse in Bengal: Institutional Constraints to Agrarian Change, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Boyce, J. K. (1989). "Population Growth and Real Wages of Agricultural Labourers in Bangladesh", in Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 467-489.

Negative impact population growth upon real wages not certain. Negative labour supply effect but may have positive labour demand effect: may be explanation for higher agricultural wages in districts with higher rural population densities, and slower real-wage decline in first half of century in districts with more rapid population growth. Changes in holding size, inequality of landholdings, and extent and nature of tenancy contributed to this.

Braun, G. (1990). The Poverty of Convential Development Concepts, Tübingen.

Compares different development concepts, mainly the growth and industrialisation concept with the basic needs approach. Both concepts failed to alleviate poverty to a considerable extent. Describes the conceptual and methodological problems. The hoped trickle-down effect of economic growth has proved illusory, also the basic needs approach which had only little employment effects. He sees sustainable development and alternative life styles as an alternative to the more conventional development approaches.

Breman, Jan (1974). Patronage and Exploitation. Changing Agrarian Relations in South Gujarat, India, University of California Press, Berkeley, 287 pp.

Study of landowners and agricultural labourers in Gujarat: Brahmins and a tribal caste of landless labourers. Still many elements of earlier forms of service: hali system. Disintegration of the hali system, promoted by the landlords, and to a limited extent by labourers, half-hearted by government measures, by religious leaders. But patronage-like elements still occur, although landlords limit their obligations. Labourers cannot escape control; not much political power.

Breman, J. C. (1980). "The Informal Sector" in Research: Theory and Practice, CASP 3, Rotterdam.

Breman, Jan (1985). Of Peasants, Migrants and Paupers: Rural Labour Circulation and Capitalist Production in West India, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Breman, Jan (1989). "Particularism and Scarcity: Urban Labour Markets and Social Classes", in Alavi and Harriss (eds.), pp. 269-275.

Broder, I. E. and C. T. Morris (1983). "Socially Weighted Real Income Comparisons: An Application to India", in World Development, 11.

Burki, Shahid Javed (1988). "Poverty in Pakistan: Myth or Reality", in T. N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.), pp. 69-88.

Speculative ("speculative-analytical") article, optimistic in conclusions about effects green revolution and migration. Description of Asian poverty belt (Brandt Commission) does not fit Pakistan: not large numbers urban poor, lack of literacy. Estimates of poverty (NB: most recent Naseem, 1981 - 3 poverty lines; and ILO, 1983). Own, different picture: relatively high increase average rural incomes, middle farmer leads green revolution, increase grain consumption. International migration and poverty alleviation: migration to Middle East may have more impact on poverty alleviation than green revolution. Remittance higher than average household income in the areas of migrant's origin, or three times of income of poorer 20 per cent.

Cain, Mead (1977). "The Economic Activities of Children in a Village in Bangladesh", in Population and Development Review, 3, 3, pp. 201-208.

Cain, M. (1978). "The Household Lifecycle and Economic Mobility in Rural Bangladesh", in Population and Development Review, Vol. 4, No. 3, September.

Based on field work 1976-78 in Mymensingh. Sons establish households early. Mean number children 7 - data suggest that children provide significant net returns. Mobility effects: cumulative labour by children; crisis can be averted if sons are produced early. Among wealthier mean age of leaving higher and smaller proportion of sons living away from home. I.e.: rational reproductive behaviour.

Cain, M.T. (1986). "The Consequences of Reproductive Failure: Dependence, Mobility and Mortality Among the Elderly of Rural South Asia", in Population Studies, Vol. 40, No. 3.

Cain, M.T. and A. Mozumdar (1981). "Labour Market Structure and Reproductive Behaviour in Rural South Asia", in G. Rodgers and G. Standing (eds.): Work, Poverty and Under-Development, ILO, Geneva.

Cain, M., S. Rokeya Khanam and S. Nahar (1979). "Class, Patriarchy and Women's Work in Bangladesh", in Population and Development Review, pp. 405-438.

Caplan, Lionel (1970). Land and Social Change in East Nepal. A Study of Hindu-Tribal Relations, University of California Press, Berkeley.

Centre for Women's Research Sri Lanka (1989). Reaching the poor. Report of a Workshop Held on 18th April, 1989, CENWOR, Document Series No.15, 27 pp.

Short presentations of NGO's programmes. Conclusions: need to target to reach most needy, awareness creation, build on people's capacities,identify specific strategies.

Chambers, Robert (1983). Rural Development: Putting the Last First, Longman and Harrow.

Chambers, Robert (1988). Poverty in India: Concepts, Research and Reality, Institute of Development Studies Discussion Paper No.241, Sussex.

Need to look at poor people's own priorities and perceptions. Differ from professional's, like poverty line analysis (need for decentralised learning from poor people). Poor's hierarchy: consumption for survival, assets for security (vulnerability to contingencies has increased: traditional sources of security have weakened; coping with contingencies costs more), and independence for self-respect. Relevance IRDP questioned - support instead for consumer-oriented programmes for poorest, and rights to trees and land.

Chant, Sylvia and Sarah A. Radcliffe (1992). "Migration and Development: The Importance of Gender", in Sylvia Chant (ed.): Gender and Migration in Developing Countries, Belhaven Press, London and New York, pp. 1-29.

Chaudhry, M. Ghaffar (1982). "Green revolution and Redistribution of Rural Incomes: Pakistan's Experience", in Pakistan Development Review, 31, 3, pp. 173-205.

Chen, M. (1986). A Quiet Revolution: Women in Transition in Rural Bangladesh, BRAC, Dhaka.

Chen, M. (1986). "Poverty, Gender, and Work in Bangladesh", in Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXI, No. 5, 1 February, pp. 217-222.

Rapid socio-economic change in Bangladesh: increasing landlessness and impoverishment. Consequences vary according to socio-economic class and gender. Women from the poorest class face most risks because of segregated markets for labour and products. Status of women: purdah, kinship system, roles of women and production system.

Chowdhury, Khorshed (1993). "Food and Hunger Nexus. Availability and Entitlement Hypothesis Reconsidered. Evidence from Bangladesh Data", in Journal of Developing Societies, Vol. IX, pp. 88-104.

Inadequacy of approach of decline food availability - alternative Sen's entitlement hypothesis. Food entitlements have declined for a vast majority of people in Bangladesh.

Chowdhury, Nuimuddin (1988). "Where the Poor Come Last: The Case of Modified Rationing in Bangladesh", in Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 16, March, No. 1.

Summary: Examines scope, character and effects of Modified Rationing: criteria defining eligibility, foodgrain allocation modalities, urban versus rural, leakage, etc. The only monetised channelled in foodgrain distribution having rural poor as constituency, but had deepest cutback in operation, greatest volatility in offtake, conspicuous degree of urban bias. Minor player in foodgrain intake. Leakage estimated to be half of what ought to be distributed.

Chowdhury, Nuimuddin (1992). "A Reassessment of Bangladesh's Poverty Record, 1974-1984", in Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 20, December, No. 4, pp. 1-24.

Poverty records has positive, if not overly optimistic, aspects - critique of Osmani ("Structural Change", 1990) and Khan (1990): deduction of rising poverty from foodgrain availability and real rice prices is logically deficient; real wages almost certainly did rise; conclusion about stagnation of real rice prices based on questionable methodology.

Chowdhury, Nuimuddin and Karimullah Bhuiyan (1985). "Wages in Bangladesh Industries, 1972/73-1981/82: Levels and Structure", in Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 13, June, No. 2.

Changes in levels and structure of wages in large-scale industries. Real wages in large-scale industries stagnated between 1972/73 and 1981/82 (BSS data). Real wages in public sector industries have grown, but very modestly. Hence no evidence for a presence of regime of labour aristocracy: GDP grew 1.6 per cent - real wage less than 1 per cent. Skill differentials first rose and then declined; all in all skill differentials contracted and wage structure not compressed.

Chowdhury, O.H. (1983). "Profile of Workers in the Food for Work Programme in Bangladesh", in Bangladesh Development Studies, 11.

CIRDAP (Center on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific) (1986). Socio-Economic Disabilities and Disadvantages of the Rural Poor. Nepal, CIRDAP Study Series, 84, Dhaka, 78 pp.

Survey of conditions of rural poor as a group, identifies what benefits have reached in planned development: nature and extent poverty, identify poverty groups (income, asset holding, employment), analyze social, political, cultural and economic disabilities, anti-poverty programmes, alternatives. Chapter 2: Macro Study. 3: Case study of village panchayat. "Disadvantages and disabilities of the poor" (p. 39-53): literacy, health, isolation of villages, pressure on land, monetisation. Analysis of Integrated Hills Development Project - performance not so satisfactory: high costs, little scope participation, little chance of becoming self-sustaining.

Compte, Bernard Le (1986). Project Aid, Limitations and Alternatives, OECD Development Centre, Paris.

Connell, J., B. Dasgupta, R. Laishley and M. Lipton (1976). Migration from Rural Areas, Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Crocker, D.A. (1991). "Towards Development Ethics", in World Development, 19.

Crone, Donald K. (1993). "States, Elites, and Social Welfare in Southeast Asia", in World Development, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 55-66.

Political basis of social welfare Malaysia, Thailand and Philippines. Combination political capacity and will. Social welfare change result of combination politics and the market.

Cutler, Peter (1984). "The Measurement of Poverty: A Review of Attempts to Quantify the Poor, with Special Reference to India", in World Development, 12, Nos.11/12, pp. 1119-1130.

Dasgupta, Biplab and Roy Laishley (1975). "Migration from Villages", in Economic and Political Weekly, 18 October, pp. 1652-1662.

Dasgupta, Nandini (1991) . "Capital, State and Petty Trading in Calcutta", in Economic and Political Weekly, 27 July, pp. 1799-1807.

Dasgupta, Partha (1993). An Inquiry into Well-Being and Destitution, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Dasgupta, P. and D. Ray (1987). "Inequality as a Determinant of Malnutrition and Unemployment: Policy", in The Economic Journal, 97.

Dixon, R. (1982). "Mobilizing Women for Rural Employment in South Asia: Issues of Class, Caste and Patronage", in Economic Development and Cultural Change, 30, pp. 373-390.

Effective employment policies for women should use existing caste and class identities (existing bases of solidarity and cleavage) - caste hierarchies and inequality of wealth need not be a deterrent for policies. Providing alternative employment would crack patriarchal system, in the long run should challenge hierarchy. Employment patterns, differences per country, niches. Women's work: class and caste distinctions. Caste and class as organising principles. Patronage and factionalism.

Djurfeldt, G. and S. Lindberg (1975). Behind Poverty: The Social Formation in a Tamil Village, Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies Monograph Series No.22, Studentlitteratur, Lund & Curzon Press, London, 340 pp.

Drèze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1991). "Public Action for Social Security: Foundations and Strategy", in E. Ahmad et al. (eds.), pp. 1-40.

1. Distinguish protection of living standards from promotion. 2. Variables for success or failure social security: focus on capability of people. 3. Economic growth not enough - conscious public efforts have made countries overcome deprivation. 4. Famines: prevention to be sought in entitlement protection rather than only distributing food. Public action geared to determine ability people to command food. 5. Promotion living standards: growth-mediated versus support-led (a.o. Sri Lanka)- plurality of routes. 6. Nature public action. Distinguish actions taken for and by the public.

Drèze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1993). Hunger and Public Action, Oxford University Press, Delhi (first published 1989).

Echeverri-Gent, John (1993). The State and the Poor. Public Policy and the Political Development in India and the United States, University of California Press, Berkeley.

Conceptual framework for analysing public policy implementation; applies it to three poverty alleviation programmes: Resettlement and Farm Security under New Deal, Employment Guarantee Scheme in Maharastra, National Rural Employment Programme in West Bengal. Organisationist's perspective: tension between cultural sources of rationality and view of rationality as strategic pursuit of self-interest.

Etienne, Gilbert (1982). India's Changing Rural Scene, 1963-1979, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Fawcett James T., Siew-Ean Khoo and Peter C. Smith (eds.) (1984). Women in the Cities of Asia. Migration and Urban Adaption, Westview Press, Boulder, 406 pp.

Interesting collection of articles on women in the urban environment in different parts of Asia, including case studies of India (Singh, stresses the "North-South" distinction) and Pakistan, and a feminisation of the Todaro model (Thadani and Todaro). The contribution by Smith et al. places the studies in comparative persepctive, and suggest three patterns: female-dominant migration (Latin America, Western Europa); male-selective youth migration (Africa, Middle East, South Asia) and balanced sex ratios (East and South East Asia and Eastern Europe).

Gaiha, Raghav (1988a). "On Measuring the Risk of Poverty in Rural India", in T.N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.), pp. 219-261.

Quantitative response model. To understand naturae and causation of poverty, it is necessary to examine: (1) village development that may, by providing inputs for economic activities, influence income-earning opportunities for poorer sections; (2) consequences technological process (beneficial to poor); (3) demographic, educational and employment characteristics of households.

Gaiha, Raghav (1988b). "Income Mobility in Rural India", in Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 279-302.

Relationship rural poverty and agricultural growth (Ahluwalia, Griffin and Ghosh, Bardhan) - income mobility unexplored. Focus on pattern of income mobility cultivating poor during 1968-70 (daily calorie requirement, Rs.20). Basis: NCAER data. One-half ceased to be poor, 12 per cent became poorer. Suggestion that poorest of poor fared better. Factors that enabled them to overcome poverty: greater access cultivable land, modern agricultural inputs, direct involvement of section poor in growth process itself initiated by new technology.

Gaiha, Raghav (1989). "On Estimates of Rural Poverty in India. An Assessment", in Asian Survey, Vol. XXIX, No. 7, July, pp. 687-697.

Reviews recent estimates rural poverty in India based on NSS - consumer expenditure distributions - in particular Minhas' et al. study changes rural poverty 1970-83.

Galanter, Marc (1984). Competing Equalities. Law and the Backward Classes in India, University of California Press, Berkeley, 625 pp.

Perhaps the best/completest study of India's reservation policies, the system of preferential treatment for historically disadvantaged sections of the population. Distinction between formal and substantive equalities. Compensatory discrimination policies entail systematic departures from norms of equality such as merit. Part 1: social setting and historical background of compensatory discrimination policy, programmes and administration. 2: who are the people entitled to compensation, the beneficiaries? 3: scope of commitment. Conclusion: costly success. Policies have produced substantial redistribution (although not spread evenly throughout group) and representation in legislative settings (although tends to produce compliant leaders). In long run education and jobs help weaken stigmatizing but resentment may magnify hostility. Question is what it does to morale and initiative of beneficiaries. A combination of self-liquidating and self-perpetuating features.

Gaudier, Maryse (1993). Poverty, Inequality, Exclusion: New Approaches to Theory and Practice -- Pauvretés, inégalités, exclusions: renouveau des approches théoriques et des pratiques sociales, ILO, Geneva, 208 pp.

Bibliography, with analysis (pp. 47-88). Causes of (new) poverty: macroeconomic (world economic crisis, internal policies, external debt, SAP, collapse socialism, industrial restructuring); social (demographic, economic and social exclusion. Social support programmes for adjustment: adjustment with human face, compensatory programmes, social investment funds. Reorientation social protection: adapting social security, developing social services, income support, safety nets. Employment oriented policies.

Gavan, J. and I. Chandrasekera (1979). "The Impact of Public Foodgrain Distribution on Food Consumption and Welfare in Sri Lanka", Research Report No.13, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.

Glewwe, P. (1988). "Economic Liberalization and Income Inequality. Further Evidence from the Sri Lankan Experience", in Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 28, No. 2.

Gore, Charles (1993). "Entitlement Relations and `Unruly' Social Practices: A Comment on the Work of Armatya Sen", in The Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3, April, pp. 429-60.

Summary: Examines conceptual basis and analytical deployment Sen's analysis. Sen specifies rules of entitlement in different ways, ignores how legal rules work in practice, downplays the way in which socially enforced moral rules constrain and enable entitlement. Appropriateness of approach for analysis hunger and famine and Sen's philosophical arguments - alternative view of rules of entitlement suggested, drawing on literature on moral economy of provisioning.

Government of NWFP and Swiss Development Corporation (1990). Report of the Project Preparation Mission, January.

Greenough, Paul R. (1982). Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal. The Famine of 1943-1944, Oxford U.P., New York, 342 pp.

Griffin, Keith (1976). "On the Emigration of the Peasantry", in World Development, Vol. 4, No. 5.

Griffin, Keith (1989). Alternative Strategies for Economic Development, Macmillan with OECD Development Centre, Basingstoke, 267 pp.

Development paths: monetarism, open economy, industrialisation, green revolution, redistribution (case: the flawed strategy in Sri Lanka, pp. 181-188), socialist strategies.

Griffin, K. and A. K. Ghose (1979). "Growth and Impoverishment in the Rural Areas of Asia", in World Development, Vol. 7, pp. 361-383.

Crisis in rural areas - standard of living of some groups have declined absolutely. Five views explaining crisis: (1) random shocks; (2) population density and growth; (3) stagnation agricultural production; (4) increasing relative inequality - except in cases where radical distribution land; (5) absolute impoverishment. Relationship rate of increase agricultural output and changes rural poverty - little reason to believe that poverty will diminish significantly by accelerating growth of production ("trickle down modified"); hunger and impoverishment have more to do with pattern of growth. Causes immiserising growth: concentration productive wealth in few hands; high degree inequality distribution of income; control by small group of state and use in their favour. Allocating resources often biased against poor. Interlocking markets. Prices determined politically.

Griffin, K. and A. R. Khan (1978). "Poverty in the World: Ugly Facts and Fancy Models", in World Development, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 295-304.

Asia 1960s-70s: despite rise in average incomes the incidence of rural poverty has shown little tendency to diminish and in many cases standard of living declined, particularly landless. Reasons not the rates of growth but structure of the economy. High degree of inequality. Structure of factor markets: unequal distribution of productive assets - unequal distribution of income - reinforced by operation of price mechanism - low demand for labour. Poverty line based on caloric considerations and real incomes; but advocate structural definition of poverty.

Griffin, K. and A. R. Khan (eds.) (1977). Poverty and Landlessness in Rural Asia, ILO, Geneva.

Griffin, K. and J. Knight (eds.) (1989). Human Development in the 1980s and Beyond, special issue of Journal of Development Planning, No. 19.

Guisinger, Stephen and Norman Hicks (1978). "Long-Term Trends in Income Distribution in Pakistan", in World Development, November-December, 6, pp. 1271-1280.

Gulde, Anne-Marie (1991). Sri Lanka: Price Changes and the Poor, IMF Working Paper, May, 22 pp.

Examination of effect of recent structural adjustment since late 1986 affects poorest segment. 1. Poverty profile (nutritional, employment), and expenditure pattern poor. 2. Effects of measures on real income. Average increase in food prices ca. 30 per cent - different poor groups are affected to varying degrees (influence wage increases, devaluation output prices). 3. Measures to protect poor, gradual price increases, targeting of social welfare expenditure. Annex: absolute (minimum food expenditure) versus relative poverty (Gini-Coefficient).

Haan, Arjan de (forthcoming). "Labour Recruitment in an Indian Industry - Historical Roots of a Labour Surplus", in Gerry Rodgers, Klara Foti and Laurids Lauridsen (eds.), Frank Cass EADI Series, forthcoming.

Harriss, John, K. P. Kannan and Gerry Rodgers (1990). Urban Labour Market Structure and Job Access in India: A Study of Coimbatore, Research Series 92, IILS, Geneva, 146 pp.

Hartmann, B. and J. Boyce (1983). A Quiet Violence: View from a Bangladesh Village, Zed Press, London, 285 pp.

Helweg, Arthur W. (1983). "Emigrant Remittances: Their Nature and Impact on a Punjabi Village", in New Community, Vol. X, No. 3, Spring, pp. 435-443.

Different stages of remittances: (1) for family maintenance and improving land productivity - prospered; (2) conspicuous consumption, symbolic purpose, class ranking and power within village, resulting in tensions, inflation, worsening position of poorest; (3) focus on business type investment, diversification.

Hewavitharana, B. (1986). Industrialisation, Employment and Basic Needs: The Case of Sri Lanka, ILO, World Employment Programme Research, Basic Needs and Employment Programme, Working Paper 60, Geneva, 124 pp.

Investigates relationship between industrialisation, employment, basic needs, and social welfare programmes (circular causations). Chapter 2: categories of the poor, and their strategies. 3. Industrialisation and growth. 4. Industrialisation and employment and basic needs - enclave character of industry inhibited growth and impeded distribution potentials (misleading growth-employment dichotomy) - need to break down dualism, industry can contribute to integrations of economy. Alternatives: land distribution little scope, target group only transient effects, asset-oriented not for those without assets - hence need for dynamic industry. 5. Implications social welfare for industrial development.

Hill, Polly (1984). "The Poor Quality of Official Socio-economic Statistics Relating to the Rural Tropical World: With Special Reference to South India", in Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 18, No. 3.

Hill, Polly (1986). Development Economics on Trial: The Anthropological Case for the Prosecution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 198 pp. Review in: Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 337, pp. 861-864.

Holman, Robert (1978). Poverty: Explanations of Social Deprivation, Martin Robertson, Oxford.

Holmström, Mark (1984). Industry and Inequality. The Social Anthropology of Indian Labour, Cambridge University Press.

Hood, Ron, Mary Altomare, Lawrence Haddad, Martha Starr-McCluer and Virginia Hubbs. With the Mayatech Corporation (1992). Gender and Adjustment, report prepared for the US Agency for International Development, Bureau for Research and Development, Office of Women in Development, Washington, 194 pp.

Gender dimension of adjustment policies in developing countries. Cases: Jamaica, Pakistan, Ghana/Cote D'Ivoir. First phase: stabilisation and demand management - evidence of relatively greater hardship of women is mixed and not overwhelming where it does occur (data clouded by difficulty in knowing what happens inside households). Second phase: structural reforms, prices, economic incentives - key gender issue is relative participation of sexes in renewed growth but results are less clear. Women likely to suffer from increase workload, reduction land available food crops, unequal access credit, etc.; may profit from new employment less-capital-intensive industries. Case Pakistan (p. 62-116). Introduction. History. Socio-economic profile of women. Structural adjustment. Impact on women.

Hussain, Dr. Akmal (undated). Final Report of the Sub-Committee on Poverty and Poverty Alleviation (for the Eighth Five Year Plan 1993-1998), Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Islamabad/Pakistan Institute of Environment Development Action Research, undated, 62 pp.

Poverty not simply deprivation goods, but by being denied basic necessities people are incapable of actualising human potential ("capability", Dreze and Sen). Economic growth accompanied by growing regional inequality. Interaction poverty and environmental degradation. Decline poverty 1970-1988 (A. Ercelawn, "Undernourishment as Poverty in Pakistan", AERC, February 1991, Mimeo; Aly Ercelawn, M. Mahmood and K. Nadvi, "The Social Cost of Economic Restructuring in Pakistan", October 1991, Mimeo) - but caution with data. Poverty alleviation, 2 paradigms: top down delivery (deliver basket of goods or services); participatory development (participation of poor, to build resources, need of catalysts). Part 2: poverty alleviation strategy - participatory people centred. 3: implementation mechanism. 4: recommendations for immediate action.

ILO, Asian Employment Programme (1983). Employment and Structural Change in Pakistan. Issues for the Eighties, Bangkok.

Isenman, P. (1980). "Basic Needs: The Case of Sri Lanka", in World Development, 8, pp. 237-258.

Judges Sri Lanka's success in meeting basic needs and growth, and uses this case to cast light on general hypotheses regarding basic needs. Sri Lanka has the best social indicators; but Sri Lanka's social expenditure had substantial cost in growth and unemployment. Surprisingly, growth has been above average for low-income countries. Basic needs programmes include the need to target social programmes, high priority of primary education and assuring minimum caloric intakes.

Isenman, P. (1987). "A Comment on `Growth and Equity in Developing Countries: A Reinterpretation of the Sri Lankan Experience'", by Bhalla and Glewwe, in The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 521-531.

Bhalla/Glewwe's yardstick to judge change in social indicators. Regression equations: overstated effect of growth on social indicators, inconsistencies. Test for direct or indirect approach obscures the evolving synthesis in development policy and theory.

Islam, Rizwanul (1981). "Women, Work and Wages in Rural Bangladesh", in The Journal of Social Studies, No. 1, January.

Issues of female employment, income level, welfare of households largely dependent on income women. Survey of 460 household in 3 villages.

Islam, R. and M. Muqtada (eds.) (1986). Bangladesh - Selected Issues in Employment and Development, ARTEP/ILO, New Delhi.

Islam, Iyanatul and Habibullah Khan (1986). "Income Inequality, Poverty and Socioeconomic Development in Bangladesh: An Empirical Investigation", in Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 14, June, No. 2, pp. 75-92.

Pattern of income distribution and poverty in Bangladesh 1963/4-1976/77; compares socioeconomic status with other developing countries. Drastic decline income (rural and urban) [especially decline 1963-66 - why?]. Increase poverty. Relative inequality also has worsened, particularly since the mid 1970s. Bangladesh lowest position in the Third World in composite social index. More attention should be given to social sectors.

Islam, R. and Atiq Rahman (1986). Agrarian Change, Labour Contracts and Interlinked Transactions in Labour, Land and Credit. Rural Bangladesh, Asian Employment Programme Working Paper, ILO-ARTEP, New Delhi, and BIDS, Dhaka.

Iyengar, N. S. (1989). "Recent Studies of Poverty in India", Journal of Quantitative Economics, 5.

Jahan, S. (1991). "Development Challenges in the Nineties: Poverty Alleviation in Bangladesh", in BIIS Journal (Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies, Dhaka), Vol. 12, No. 4, October, pp. 492-525.

Jalali, Rita (1993). "Preferential Policies and the Movement of the Disadvantaged: The Case of the Scheduled Castes in India", in Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 16, No. 1, January, pp. 95-120.

Effects of state actions on the political behaviour of disadvantaged minorities. Process through which polity constructs new forms of group awareness and political action: Scheduled Caste, a group composed of distinct caste groups with specific cultural and occupational characteristics, lumped together under one category. Preferential policies increased political organisation and activism. Based on government documents, newspapers, interviews with politicians, officials, grass-root activists, and leaders of movement.

Jayalath, Bandara A. (1992). The Effects of Fund-Supported Stabilization Programs on Distribution of Income: The Case of Sri Lanka 1965-1985, Occasional Papers in Economic Development, No. 50, Faculty of Economic Studies, University of New England, Australia, 33 pp.

Distributional impact of policy measures under IMF quest for economic stabilisation during 1965-70 and 1977-85): direction of development policies, welfare indicators, patterns of income distribution (Consumer Finance Survey), wages, labour's share of income. Contradicts the "familiar" argument that stabilisation leads to more income for the poor, to small scale producers (growers of paddy). The measures provided more space for capitalist class, and placed burden on workers and other poor, situation of poorest worsened. Indicators: division in quantiles (erosion poorest), capitalist class (share prices, concentration, scale of enterprises), labour's share of income (compensation/surplus; reduced); welfare expenditure (consumer expenditure - better targeted but decline amount, decline nutrition).

Jansen, Eirik G. (1986). Rural Bangladesh: Competition for Scarce Resources, Norwegian University Press, Oslo, 351 pp.

Jansen, Eirik G. (1991). "Process of Polarization and the Breaking up of A Patron-Client Relationships in Rural Bangladesh", in Akanda and Islam (eds.), pp. 41-58.

Jha, Sunil Kumar (1992). "Strategy of Planning for the Alleviation of Rural Poverty in Nepal", in The Economic Journal of Nepal, Vol. 15, No. 3, Issue 59, July-September, pp. 29-36.

Role of state in reducing poverty: Eight Plan distinct departure from past, since democracy has dawned on Nepal. Suggestions for Plan.: decentralised, increase assets poor, etc. Structure of inequality in Nepal (Seddon, 1987).

Jones, S. (1979). "An Evaluation of Rural Development Programme in Bangladesh", in The Journal of Social Studies, 6, pp. 51-92.

Jose, A. V. (1988). "Agricultural Wages in India", in Economic and Political Weekly, 25 June 1988, pp. A4 6-58.

Joshi, Heather and Vijay. (1976). Surplus Labour and the City: A study of Bombay, Oxford UP, Delhi.

Kabeer, N. (1989a). Monitoring Poverty as if Gender Mattered: A Methodology for Rural Bangladesh, Institute of Development Studies Discussion Paper 255, Sussex, 47 pp.

Aggregated measures of poverty are insensitive to poverty distribution among sub-groups of poor. Empirical material from Bangladesh suggests that women experience poverty differently and become impoverished through different processes. "Key indicator approach" rather than "headcount approach" to built gender dimension into poverty monitoring.

Kabeer, Naila (1989b). The Quest for National Identity: Women, Islam and the State in Bangladesh, Institute of Development Studies Discussion Paper 268, IDS, Sussex, October, 42 pp.

Ambivalence of Islam in national identity of Bengali Muslims, and its implications of development projects of recent regimes in Bangladesh: ("creeping") Islamisation versus ideals of UN Decade for Women.

Kakwani, N. (1988). "Income Inequality, Welfare and Poverty in a Developing Economy with Applications to Sri Lanka", in Social Choice and Welfare, 5.

Kanbergi, Ramesh (ed.) (1991). Child Labour in the Indian Sub-continent: Dimensions and Implications, Sage, New Delhi.

Khadka, Narayan (1991). Nepal's Programme for Fulfilment of Basic Needs (1985-2000). A Critical Prognosis, DCAS Discussion Paper 65, Centre for Developing Areas Studies, McGill University, Montreal, April, 34 pp.

Examines imperatives of the Basic Needs Programme for Fulfilment of Basic Needs: general background of country, 3 decades of planning and development, need for basic-needs strategy (beneficiaries), institutional structure for implementation, lessons for the future democratic regime. Factors that hindered programme, not addressed: geography, relation with India, partyless system, institutional constraints, economic, centralisation, power distribution, caste structure. Failure to identify targeted population.

Khan, A. R. (1990). "Poverty in Bangladesh: A Consequence of and a Constraint on Growth", in Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol. 18, September, No. 3, pp. 19-34.

Rapid agricultural growth, but little impact on distribution of income or alleviating rural poverty. Inequality in the distribution of income - produced by institutional, technological and demographic factors, resulted in declining share of wages in output - has made it impossible to alleviate poverty or permit sustained growth towards self-sufficiency. Unequal distribution of income limiting internal demand for foodgrain is critical constraint. Burden of poverty alleviation would have to be borne by growth in non-agricultural sector and/or redistributive measures.

Khan, A. R., and Eddy Lee (eds.) (1984). Poverty in Rural Asia, ILO/ARTEP, Bangkok.

Khan, A. R., and M. Hussain (with a foreword by K. Griffin) (1989). The Strategy of Development in Bangladesh, Macmillan in association with the OECD Development Centre, Houndsmill.

Chapter 7 "Income Distribution and Poverty". Indicators. Evidence: urban poverty increased, no significant change rural poverty, significant decline real wages agricultural labourers since 1949; ie. increase inequality, increase poverty, only severest kind poverty declined. Factors behind inequality/poverty. Discrimination against women.

Kohli, Atul (1987). The State and Poverty in India. The Politics of Reform, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 260 pp.

State and redistribution. Democracy and development. Cases: West Bengal, Karnataka, and Uttar Pradesh.

Kothari, Rajni (1993). Growing Amnesia. An Essay on Poverty and the Human Consciousness, Viking, Penguin, New Delhi, 1993, 185 pp.

Kramsjo, Bose and Geoffrey Wood, with a Preface by Farque Ahmed (1992). Breaking the Chains. Collective Action for Social Justice among the Rural Poor of Bangladesh, Intermediate Technology Publications, London, 104 pp.

The poor of Bangladesh are in chains, and empowerment is needed to break these. There are chains of: class, gender, kin norms and religion; and these chains may be interlinked. Activities of Proshika, local organisations: group formation, conscientisation, education, training, social action (for wages, tenant shares etc.), drinking water, income generation, credit - Proshika committed to experimental action research. Part 1 introduction (Wood, pp. 1-34). Part 2 case studies: solidarity, control resources, resistance exploitation, women fight for rights, increasing wages, income generation, popular theatre for mobilisation, organisational strength.

Krishnan, T.N (1992). "Population, Poverty and Employment in India", Economic and Political Weekly, November 14, pp. 2479-97.

Successes and failures of Indian economy in integrating population issues with development planning. 1. Population growth since independence and prospects of reducing it: crucial role of social and human development (female education and access to health) in influencing fertility, neglected in planning. Success of Kerala and Goa. 2. Relation foodgrains production and population growth, public distribution system. 3. Labour market adjustments in response to population growth: growth labour force, unemployment, wages (no strong evidence that wage rates react to demographic pressure), productivity, women's status.

Krueger, Anne O., Maurice Schiff and Alberto Valde's (eds.) (1991). The Political Economy of Agricultural Pricing Policy, Volume 2, Asia, Published for the World Bank by The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London.

One of aims of project to determine the effect of price discrimination against agriculture on income distribution. Chapter 4: Pakistan, by Naved Hamid, Ijaz Nabi and Anjum Nasim (p. 107-48). Chapter 6: Sri Lanka, by Surjit Bhalla (p. 195-235).

Lal, Deepak. 1989. The Hindu Equilibrium, Volume 2, Aspects of Indian Labour, Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Langford, C. (1984). "Sex Differentials in Mortality in Sri Lanka: Changes since the 1920s", Journal of Bio-social Science, 16.

Lefebvre, Alain (1990). "International Labour Migration from Two Pakistani Villages with Different Forms of Agriculture", The Pakistan Development Review, 29, 1, Spring, pp. 59-90.

Analysis of socio-economic situation of two Punjabi villages - explains why villagers have to seek work abroad: villagers cannot ensure social, economic and cultural reproduction. Economic status of villagers. Effect of migration on young people. Profile of migrants, remittances. Impact on women's role.

Le Thanh Ngiep (1990). Social Aspect of Development: Poverty Alleviation in Developing Countries, International Development Centre of Japan, Staff Occasional Note No.1, 11 pp.

Brief note summarising results of study on international cooperation for poverty alleviation: definition, causes of poverty, poverty alleviation-economic growth, measures poverty alleviation, case study Sri Lanka.

Levine, Nancy E. (1988). "Webs of Dependence in Rural Nepal: Debts, Poverty and Depopulation in the Far Northwest", Contributions to Nepalese Studies, Vol.15, No.2, July, pp. 213-45.

Study of debt in six villages: influence of debt on social relations and economic inequities. Creditors and debtors do not come from opposed social groups, but loans are contracted between persons (have and have-nots) of same castes or ethnic groups. Indebtedness is grounded at another economic level than the monetary economy: shortage of arable land and grain.

Lieten, G.K., O. Nieuwenhuys, L. Schenk-Sandbergen (eds.) (1989). Women, Migrants and Tribals. Survival Strategies in Asia, Manohar.

Collection of articles centring around basic needs strategy, the survival of the poorest, survival and emancipation, intra-household power relations.

Lipton, M. (1977). Why Poor People Stay Poor: Urban Bias in World Development, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma.

Lipton, Michael (1980). "Migration form Rural Areas of Poor Countries: The Impact on Rural Productivity and Income Distribution", in World Development, Vol.8, pp. 1-24.

Intra-rural equality is a major cause of rural-urban migration: better-off villagers tend to be pulled; worse are pushed (evidence study Connell et al., 1976). Townward migration in turn increases interpersonal and inter-household inequality: ""push" and "pull" migration are twin children of inequality in the same sort of village; but they are also sources of new inequality" (p. 4).

Lipton, Michael (1991). Progress and Poverty, Institute of Development Studies, Discussion Paper 293, June, IDS, Sussex, 17 pp.

Review of Chenery and Srinivasan, "Handbook of Development Economics", suggests two trends in recent development economics: it is increasingly about progress or poverty; it is both globalising and fragmenting. If people behave differently below poverty thresholds, these trends should be resisted.

Lipton, M., with R. Longhurst (1989). New Seeds and Poor People, Hyman Unwin, London.

Lipton, Michael and Simon Maxwell, with the assistance of Jerker Edstroem and Hiroyuki Hatashima (1992). The New Poverty Agenda: An Overview, Institute of Development Studies, Discussion Paper 306, IDS, Sussex, August.

Describes new emphasis on poverty reduction in the 1990s (no specific reference to Asia; in case of India new paradigm seems different). Old paradigms: 1950s - industrialisation; 60s - agricultural growth, human capital; 70s - redistribution with growth; 80s - structural adjustment. 1990s: twin-track strategy - labour intensive growth plus improved social services. Only labour intensive growth generates few dangers of trade-offs against poverty reduction (p. 12). New World Bank thinking shows shift of emphasis (p. 6): balanced attitude to role of state, importance civil society (not just NGO's), focus on labour-intensive growth to avoid growing unemployment and poverty.

Mahbub (or Afruz Mahbub, Gule) (1986). Study on Women in Development, Vols.I-III, Dhaka.

Mahmud, W. and S. Mahmud (1985). "Age-Sex Aspects of the Food and Nutrition Problems in Rural Bangladesh", ILO Working Paper, WEP 10-6/WP74, Geneva.

Malloney, Clarence (1988). Behavior and Poverty in Bangladesh, University Press, Dhaka, (2nd ed., first publ.1986).

Superficial monograph trying to add to the "new interest" in linkage psychology, behavior and culture - determinants socio-economics. 8 causes of poverty (on basis talks with people): natural and external, population growth, historical, illiteracy, idleness, hierarchy and exploitation (entitlement to patronage), individualism, trust/guilt/duty.

Mannan, M.A. (1989). Status of Women in Bangladesh: Equality of Rights - Theory and Practice, BIDS Research Report No.113, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 65 pp.

Study documents discrimination of women in different spheres, which makes them "the last colony, the last serf, the last minor in many respects" (p. 59). Section A is a general description. Socio-cultural attitudes. Religious influence, purdah. Legal rights and different practices: bride's consent and inheritance right of women hardly ever exercised. Intra family distribution of food: women last to take. Fertility: early pregnancies. Exclusion of women from productive work. Section B: Micro Evidence. 8 case studies. Evidence on childlessness, childhood mortality, division of labour.

McGee, T.G. (1983). "Labour Mobility in Fragmented Labour Markets, the Role of Circulatory Migration in Rural-Urban Relations in Asia", in: Helen I. Safa (ed.), Towards a Political Economy of Urbanization in Third World Countries, OUP, Delhi etc., pp. 47-66.

Mellor, J.W. and G.M. Dessai (eds.) (1985). Agricultural Change and Rural Poverty: Variations on a Theme by Dharm Narain, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Mendis, Patrick (1992). "The Economics of Poverty Alleviation: The Janasaviya Programme in Sri Lanka", South Asia Journal (New Delhi), 5, 3, pp. 289-98.

Miller, B. (1982). "Female Labor Participation and Female Seclusion in Rural India: A Regional View", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 30.

Mitra, Ashok (1977). Terms of Trade and Class Relations, Frank Cass, London.

Momin, M.A. (1992). Rural Poverty and Agrarian Structure in Bangladesh, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 205 pp.

Study of relationship between agrarian structure and poverty. Discussion of growth and poverty. C.T Kurien, M.S. Ahluwalia (Indian context). Griffin/Khan (1978) for Asia: rise in poverty despite economic growth. Bangladesh: percolation effect weak. Ch.4. Agrarian structure, the institutional framework: tenancy, landlessness. Inhibits growth and is important for perpetuation of poverty (p. 97-102). Due to inequities, growth accrues to landowning rich class: tendency to evict, inputs out of reach small farmer. 5. Employment. 6. Income distribution (inconclusive data). 7. Strategies poverty alleviation: IRDP, RPWP, Grameen.

Moore, Mick (1985). The State and Peasant Politics in Sri Lanka, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 328 pp. Review in: Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol.36, pp. 614-20.

Moore, Mick (1990). Economic Liberalisation, Growth and Poverty: Sri Lanka in Long Run Perspective, Institute of Development Studies, Discussion Paper 274, IDS, Sussex, March, 55 pp.

Seems that rate of economic growth since Independence has been lower than official figures indicate, and that income distribution has worsened. Optimistic prospects seems to lie in economic liberalisation (world market, private capitalism). Post 1977 policies not liberal in all respects. A more liberal policy would imply less pluralist regime, and one in which state enjoys coherence and autonomy (like in East and South East Asia. Changes in average living standards, distribution of income, living standards of poor.

Moore, W.E. and A.S. Feldman (eds.). (1960). Labor Commitment and Social Change in Developing Areas, Social Science Research Council, New York.

Mujahid, G.B.S. (1977). "Measurement of Poverty in Bangladesh: A Note on Methodology", The Bangladesh Development Studies, 3, 4, pp. 451-456.

Mukherji, Shekhar (1985). "The Process of Wage Labour Circulation in Northern India", in: Guy Standing (ed.), pp. 252-89.

Mukhopapadhyay, S. (ed.) (1985). Case Studies on Poverty Programmes in Asia, Asian and Pacific Development Centre, Kuala Lumpur.

Muqtada, M. (1981). "Poverty and Famines in Bangladesh", Bangladesh Development Studies, 9.

Muqtada, M. (ed.) (1989). The Elusive Target. An Evaluation of Target-Group Approaches to Employment Creation in Rural Asia, ARTEP/ILO/WEP, ILO, Geneva, 238 pp.

Study of rural employment programmes in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. ILO-ARTEP conducted a series of evaluation studies on these schemes in selected countries in Asia, Bangladesh, India, Nepal und Sri Lanka, investigating the sustainability and replicability of these schemes, which also includes looking into their nature, benefits and cost-effectiveness. These programmes are supposed to be quite satisfactory at a micro-level, but there are doubts about the effects on issues on a macro-level, like sustaining a higher income level of the poor, raising overall productivity, the cost effectiveness of such programmes, and the removal of constraints in realisation of basic social and economic objectives.

Nag, M. (1983). "Impact of Social and Economic Development on Mortality: Comparative Study of Kerala and West Bengal", Economic and Political Weekly, Annual Number, pp. 877-900.

Naqvi, Syed Nawab Haider (1992). On Raising the Level of Economic and Social Well-Being of the People. Being a Report of the Committee on the Strategy for Raising the Level of Economic and Social Well-being for the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1993-94 to 1997-98), Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, Islamabad, 283 pp.

Proposition (in contrast to current intellectual fashion) that per capita income is important indication of economic progress, and no sin against "human development" (strategy to double PCI in 12 years. Different growth paths possible, task to choose optimal combination. Chapter 2: Consensus in development thinking (distribution p. 26-29). 3-5: Model economic progress and well-being. 6-9: Policies. Income distribution (pp. 116-27).

Naseem, S.M. (1981). Underdevelopment, Poverty and Inequality in Pakistan, Vanguard Publications, Lahore.

1. Historical 2. Resources 3. Trends in output and employment. employment objective only subsidiary goal (p. 52). Implicit taxation agriculture, different effects on different classes (p. 59). 4 Industrial growth. Import substitution versus export promotion: one effect import substitution is deterioration terms trade agriculture, could lead to more unequal distribution of income (since inequality presumed higher in industrial sector. 5. Agricultural sector. Trends in unemployment in agriculture (p. 96 ff), effects of technical change, tractor mechanisation. 6. Income distribution and poverty. Urban income distribution much more skewed than in rural areas, in rural also decline (p. 118). Nutritional deficiency much larger in urban areas (p. 121). 7. Changes in agrarian structure. During 1960s small farmers squeezed out. Discussion Burki-Alavi: middle farmers main beneficiaries of Ayub government policies, but no loss of power big landlords. Richer owner-cum-tenant able to increase land at expense small farmers and tenants. 8. Landlessness and poverty. Some evidence that rural real wages have risen (p. 184). 9. Land reforms. 10. Migration, effect on income distribution and poverty.

National Planning Commission (1992). Children and Women of Nepal. A Situation Analysis 1992, National Planning Commission, HMG and UNICEF, Kathmandu, 201 pp.

Poverty of Nepal: $180 pc., subsistence farming, child mortality. General description of nature of poverty, income, land availability, unemployment, access to food, poverty alleviation programmes. Work burden of women: 25 per cent higher than men, in subsistence activities and domestic work. Government has expanded basic services, but limited.

Nebelung, Michael (1990). "Mobilisierung von Armen: Stabilisierung oder Transformation des Status Quo? Chancen und Grenzen eines Armutsorientierten Entwicklungskonzeptes in Laendlichen Bangladesh", Internationales Asienforum, Vol.21, No.1-2, pp. 139-65.

This article, based on field research in Bangladesh villages, examines chances and limitations of a poverty-oriented development strategy mainly based on mobilising the rural poor. It highlights the mobilisation programmes of two different NGOs, the main characteristics of the landless groups concerned and the socio-economic changes in the project area following the mobilisation efforts. The author argues that there are signs of vertical mobility, but only for small groups of rural poor without considerable changes of the socio-economic structure as such. Thus, the project activities of the NGOs only stabilize the existing power structure in the rural society and do not have a major impact on the asset distribution and the bargaining power of the disadvantaged rural poor.

North-South Institute (1985). Rural Poverty in Bangladesh. A Report to the Like-Minded Group, The North-South Institute, Ottawa, Canada, 25 pp. (in English and French).

Report (based largely on secondary sources, but with few references given) depicting trends in poverty and donors" impact on rural poor (the very poor rural majority). Poverty defined as state of economic, social and psychological deprivation among people or countries. Represents an exclusionary relationship where individuals or states are denied access to adequate resources. Impoverishment often linked to other processes of social change. Impoverishment: decline calories intake; little improvement health facilities - even rise mortality; polarisation land ownership. Rural development programmes.

Omvedt, Gail (1980). "Migration in Colonial India: the Articulation of Feudalism and Capitalism by the Colonial State", Journal of Peasant Studies, 7, pp. 185-212.

Osmani, S.R. (1990). "Notes on some Recent Estimates of Rural Poverty in Bangladesh", Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol.18, No.3, pp. 75-87.

Osmani, S.R. (1990b). "Structural Change and Poverty in Bangladesh: The Case of a False Turning Point", Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol.18, September, No.3, pp. 55-74.

Two changes: change in structure of labour force and change in recent trends in poverty. Dramatic increase size non-farm labour force (Lewisian transition), but not into industry but trade etc. (incl. small-scale industry). Change merely reflects relocation of surplus labor. Rural poverty: poorest households worse off 1973-1983, but improvement "moderate poverty". Poorest poorer because of decline of their average productivity, no improvement real wages (p. 70). Improvement moderate poor because of technological progress, Green revolution, middle peasants.

Osmani, S.R. (1991). "Social Security in South Asia", in: E. Ahmad et al (eds.), pp. 305-55.

Comprehensive overview of security schemes in South Asia, through control over land, self-employment, wage employment and provision of basic needs (mainly rural). 2. Control over land: (a) Ceiling-cum-redistribution, most radical and least successful (b) Tenancy reform - half of all farmers in South Asia cultivate some amount of rented land. Failures because no assurance against evictions by landlords and no access to new sources of loans. (c) Alienation of State-owned land: in Sri Lanka 30 per cent to a level of land-based security. 3. Self-employment, non-farm activities: success Grameen Bank versus IRDP (last one much more ambitious, Grameen Bank much more laissez-faire approach). 4. Security through wage employment. FFW in Bangladesh, positive but little range. Similarly FFW in India (merged with NREP). Right to work in Constitution. Maharashtra: successful, but because of triangle rural elite, urban sector willing to foot the bill, and poor. 5. Basic needs. Sri Lanka and Kerala ahead (health and education). Schemes started in WW 2. Last years decline, and new migrants in cities excluded.

Palmer-Jones, R.W. (1993). "Agricultural Wages in Bangladesh: What the Figures Really Show?", The Journal of Development Studies, Vol.29, No.2, January, pp. 227-300.

Impact of green revolution on poverty. Real agricultural wages as indicator. Criticises pessimism about potential of agricultural growth (Boyce, 1987; Allaudin and Tisdell, 1987) and effect new agricultural technologies (Khan and Hussain, 1989; Boyce, 1987). (For South Asia, see Lipton with Longhurst, 1989; Griffen, 1989; Jose, 1988.) Conclusions downward trend since mid-60s and the weak contribution of technological change to labour demand cannot be supported.

Papanek, Gustav F. (1991). "Market or Government: Lesson from a Comparative Analysis of the Experience of Pakistan and India", The Pakistan Development Review, 30, 4, part 1, Winter, pp. 601-46.

Patel, Rashida (1993) "Challenges Facing Women in Pakistan", in: Joanna Kerr (ed.), Ours by Right. Women's Rights as Human Rights, Zed Books in Association with The North South Institute, pp. 32-39.

Islamisation of Pakistan's Constitution (under Zia-ul-Haq), and women's strategies to resist: reinterpretation of Islam, and plea for secular laws. Economic position of women. Legal status, discriminatory and inequitable laws.

Patnaik, U. (1987). Peasant Class Differentiation: A Study in Method with Reference to Haryana, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1987.

Perera, Myrtle and R. Mudalige (1993). Self-Employment Schemes for Women in Sri Lanka. The Macro-Economic Context, Technical Co-operation Report, ILO, 78 pp.

Perera, P. D.A. (1985). "Health Care Systems of Sri Lanka", in: S.B. Halstead et al. (eds.), Good Health at Low Cost, Rockefeller Foundation, New York.

Pokhrel, Bharat P. (1991). "Female Labor Force Participation in Nepal", The Economic Journal of Nepal, Vol.14, No.3, Issue 55, July-September, pp. 44-51.

Very brief article, estimating female labour participation using 1981 Census. Glaring disparities between men and women in all spheres of life. Low rate of participation, but increased. Unemployment discourages female participation. Supply of women labour positive effect on participation.

Pryer, Jane (1992). "Purdah, Patriarchy and Population Movement: Perspectives from Bangladesh", in: Sylvia Chant (ed.), Gender and Migration in Developing Countries, Belhaven Press, London and New York, pp. 139-53.

Puttaswamaiah, K. and Michael Lipton (eds.) (1989). Poverty and Rural Development: Planners, Peasants and Poverty, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, 423 pp.

Pyatt, G. (1987). "A Comment on "Growth and Equity in Developing Countries: A reinterpretation of the Sri Lankan Experience" by Bhalla and Glewwe", World Bank Economic Review, Vol.1, No.3, pp. 515-20.

Bhalla/Glewwe have exceeded interpretations, and ignore Sri Lanka's current state of disruption. Pyatt shares the "majority view" that system of food subsidies was inefficient, but does not question performance in social field.

Quasem, M.A. (1991). "Limits to the Alleviation of Poverty through Non-farm Credit: A Comment", Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol.19, September, No.3, pp. 129-33.

Comments on S.R. Osmani, "Limits to the Alleviation of Poverty through Non-farm Credit", Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol.17, No.4, 1989.

Quddus, Syed Abdul (1990). Social Change in Pakistan, Progressive Publishers, Lahore, 359 pp.

Systematic account of different aspects of social life, with some interesting observation - like traditional social security through Zakat, and Islamic conception and treatment of poverty - but without analysis of state of, and trends in poverty.

Rahman, Atiq (1986). "Poverty Alleviation and the Most Disadvantaged Groups in Bangladesh Agriculture", Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol.14, March, No.1, pp. 29-58.

Analyses poverty alleviation of most disadvantaged. Examines term "most disadvantaged". Nutritional, control over productive assets including labour, and the use one can make of these assets and what he gets in exchange in a dynamic context (exchange entitlements [Sen 1977] and a dynamic component). Most disadvantaged: landless without other assets and secured employment. Examines correlates of poverty and prospects for improving conditions: promotion non-farm employment perhaps the only major way. Factors affecting poverty: agrarian structure - agrarian reform infeasible (increasing inequality land distribution). Limits to growth in agricultural employment. Poverty alleviation programme. Non-farm employment creation.

Rahman, Atiq, Simeen Mahmud and Trina Haque (1988). A Critical Review of the Poverty Situation in Bangladesh in the Eighties, 2 Vols., BIDS Research Report No.66 and No.67, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, Dhaka, 103+190 pp.

Vol 1. Study based on Household Expenditure Survey 1977, 1982, 1984 (unreliability and lack of data). Results: 1. income distribution worsened in 1970s, while PCI rose; distribution improved in 1980s, real incomes kept rising but slower. 2. Poverty increased till 1975, after which urban poverty decreased and rural poverty continued to increase; in 1980s both improved. Further: real wage rates, growth in non-farm sector, growing landlessness, no increasing migration, lowered nutritional values, fall life expectancy, changes female labour participation. Poverty alleviation programmes: Food For Work, Grameen, Vulnerable Group Feeding Programme, Rural Poor Programme.

Vol.2 Summaries of 89 studies in recent years on poverty and poverty-related aspects.

Rahman, Atiur (1986). Peasants and Classes: A Study in Differentiation in Bangladesh, Zed Press, London, 295 pp.

Foreword by Byres, discussion on peasant differentiation: Engels, Kautsky-Lenin, transition to socialism, debate in post-colonial societies. Introduction: egalitarian view of rural society (with egalitarian objectives in Rural Development programmes) versus structural, Marxist, view (Russian populist-Marxist differentiation debate). Despite egalitarian goals, inequality and poverty are on the increase. No homogeneous peasantry but striking inequality. Mobility analysis shows that rich were rich in the past. Explained with social relations of production, extraction of surplus. Encouraged by state. Differentiation is proceeding fast, with polarisation and immiserisation.

Ravallion, M. (1990). "The Challenging Arithmetic of Poverty in Bangladesh", Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol.18, No.3, pp. 35-53.

Rodgers, Gerry B. (1978). "Demographic determinants of the Distribution of Income", World Development, Vol.6, No.3, pp. 305-18.

Effects of fertility, mortality, migration, household structure and other demographic factors on income distribution.

Rodgers, Gerry (ed.) (1989a). Urban Poverty and the Labour Market. Access to Jobs and Incomes in Asian and Latin American Cities, ILO, Geneva.

Introduction by Rodgers. Job access/differentiation in the labour market grounded in differential access qualifications, skills, personal characteristics, access to capital and market. For India, evidence of widening wage gap, although real wages rising - dependent on state intervention (public sector pay, workers' organisation and minimum wage) and forces which tend to fragment the labour market.

For India: Bardhan on households (NSS) and Harriss on vulnerable workers and labour market segmentation.

Rodgers, Gerry (ed.) (1989b). Population Growth and Poverty in Rural South Asia, (ILO/WEP), Sage, 249 pp.

Studies on India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal. Rodgers' Overview (p. 9-26). Little evidence that population growth is major constraint on alleviating poverty. Two premises of this study: indirect effects of population growth on poverty at least as important as direct effects (population growth affects balance of economic, social and technological forces of production and distribution); impact of population growth on relative deprivation may be quite different from impact on absolute deprivation. Major findings: (1) poor do not have high fertility; 2) wide socio-economic differentials in child mortality, particularly girls; 3) migration in some situations key household response, but seemingly only in special circumstances; 4) association between household size and wealth; 5) ambiguous evidence on relationship class-household behaviour, but landless more vulnerable to economic fluctuations; 6) effects of high fertility - large family associated with less poverty; 7) population pressure operates through social relationships, leads to fragmentation and landlessness.

Roy, Dilip Kumar (1988). "Employment and Growth: Empirical Results from Bangladesh Industries", Bangladesh Development Studies, Vol.16, March, No.1, pp. 55-72.

Employment-oriented industrialisation strategy which stresses labour-intensive sectors can bring labour absorption and economic growth. Labour-intensive industries efficient users of capital. Exports concentrated on labour-intensive manufactured commodities in which country has a comparative advantage and the demand for domestically produced manufactured goods is labour absorbing.

Sadeque, Mohammed (1990). Survival Pattern of the Rural Poor (A Case Study of a Village in Bangladesh), Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 215 pp.

Describes survival process of rural poor, multi-dimensional concept: income earning, diet, education, health, status of women, family relationships, status, self-perception. Method: preliminary census, intensive interviewing and observation, and case studies.

Safa, H.I. (ed.) (1982). Towards a Political Economy of Urbanization in Third World Countries, Oxford U.P.

Sahn, D.E. (1987). "Changes in Living Standards of the Poor in Sri Lanka during the Period of Macro-Economic Restructuring", World Development, 15, 6.

Samarasinghe, S.W.R. de A. (1988). "Sri Lanka, A Case Study from the Third World", in: D.E. Bell and M.R. Reich (eds.), Health, Nutrition and Economic Crisis, Auburn House, Dover, MA.

Sanyal, S.K (1988). "Trends in Landholdings and Poverty in Rural India", in: T.N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.), pp. 121-53.

Trends in landholdings 1954-1971, on basis NSS data. Decrease in landlessness in 10 of 15 major states, rise of near-landlessness. Curtailment of large holdings in all states. Reduction in concentration land distribution, though not marked. Proportion poorest of poor declined 1961-71. But in 8 of 15 states, poverty increased. Reduction landlessness not always associated with reduction poverty. Drift into increased poverty because of splitting holdings.

Sarker, Abu Elias (1992). "Who Benefits? An Empirical Investigation of Upazila Decentralization in Bangladesh", The Journal of Social Studies, No.55, January, pp. 3-19.

Policy to vest elected UZP has changed institutional environment of rural delivery system: elected officials-government officers; politicised rural delivery system. Rhetoric of popular participation fast erode when confronted with oppressive rural class structure. State allows rural elites to reap benefits: provide vote banks and ensure law and order; state consolidates power through rural elites; elites benefit from system of patronage.

Sathananthan, S. (1991). "Rural Development Policy in Sri Lanka, 1935-1989", Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol.21, No.4, pp. 433-454.

Schendel, Willem van (1981). Peasant Mobility. The Odds of Life in Rural Bangladesh, Van Gorcum, Assen.

Schendel, Willem van (1991). Three Deltas. Accumulation and Poverty in Rural Burma, Bengal and South India, Sage, New Delhi, 344 pp.

Starts from the paradox of a world which is richer than ever, but has more poor than ever before. Capitalist transition has given rise to "modern" poverty (although there is a diversity in development paths, predicated upon economic, social and ideological relations) - accumulation led to intensified (rural) poverty. Poverty seen as the outcome of unequal relationships between groups of people. Focus on relations through which surplus is extracted from primary producers. Long-term study of three regions, where petty commodity production survived. Primary producers were unable or unwilling to resist claims of accumulators. Only small portion of surplus found way back to primary producers.

Schendel, Willem van and Aminul Haque Faraizi (1984). Rural Labourers in Bengal, 1880 to 1980, CASP 12, Rotterdam.

Seabright, Paul (1991). "Identifying Investment Opportunities for the Poor: Evidence from the Livestock Market in South India", The Journal of Development Studies, Vol.28, No.1, October 1991, pp. 53-73.

Subsidised credit to target groups: must rely on ability of borrowers to identify productive investments. Evidence from two villages: participants in IRDP made less productive livestock investments than privately funded livestock farmers. (Between a fifth and a half of IRDP participants IRDP were worse off as result loans.) Main reason: price discrimination against participants in the purchase of livestock (pay significantly more for cattle, for feed, and labour costs), and partly increasing returns at low levels of production.

Seddon, David (1984). Nepal - A State of Poverty - The political Economy of Population Growth and Social Deprivation, A Report to the ILO, Monographs in Development Studies No.11, School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia, Norwich, April, 209 pp.

Political-economy approach. Poverty is one dimension of social deprivation, which has material, cultural and political dimensions: Nepal a backward economy facing deepening crisis, unequal distribution economic and political power, inegalitarian socio-religious ideology and practice. 1. historical development. 2. relationship population growth and agricultural growth. 3. Mortality and fertility. 4. Growing population pressure on resources. 5. Class relations: basis unequal control over land. 6. Dimensions of deprivation: migration, and struggle from below. 7. Role of state contradictions/cleavages, and new possibilities.

Seddon, David (1987a). Food, Population and Basic Needs in Nepal, Development Studies Occasional Paper No.32, School of Development Studies, University of East Anglia, Norwich, April, 101 pp.

Examines economic and social context of population growth and poverty. 2. State provisions and basic needs. 3. Agrarian structure and food production. 4. Income and consumption. 5. Social deprivation - struggle for basic needs. 7. Migration. 8. Population growth. 9. Population pressure. 10. What to be done? Changes in policies: participation in 1970s, basic needs in 1980s, role of state and need to alter control by minorities.

Seddon, David (1987b). Nepal. A State of Poverty, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 288 pp.

Marxist, historical analysis of political economy, determining element class contradictions. Social mechanisms which create conditions of deprivation.

Sen, A. (1977). "Starvation and Exchange Entitlements: A general Approach and Its Implications to the Great Bengal Famine", Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.1, No.1.

Sen, A. (1988). "Sri Lanka's Achievement: How and When", in: T.N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.).

Sen, Amartya K. (1988). "Family and Food: Sex Bias in Poverty", in: T.N. Srinivasan and P. K. Bardhan (eds.), pp. 453-72.

Entitlement approach, at family level, focuses on set of alternative bundles of commodities the family can command within the legal system operating in the country, using various economic, political, and social opportunities the family faces. Starvation is failure of entitlement. In less extreme cases, entitlement approach at family level may be too gross: division of food within family crucial. Applied to rural West Bengal and Calcutta.

Sen, Amartya (1992). Inequality Reexamined, Harvard University Press, Cambridge University Press.

Examination (mainly theoretical) of the nature and reach of equality (but with bearing on practical concerns). Questions of "why equality" and "equality of what". Stresses the diversity of human beings and the multiplicity of variables (which do not coincide) which can serve as sphere of comparison. Approach to equality: judging individual advantage by the freedom to achieve and capability to function (capability approach) rather than attention for commodities and income. For example: Kerala: with income perspective one of poorest states in India, but success in basic capabilities (due to history of education, health services, position women in property rights, public activism).

Shaw, Annapurna (1984). "Wage Labour in Slum Households of Calcutta", Labour, Capital and Society, 17, 1, April, pp. 26-42.

Shaw, Annapurna (1988). "The Income Security Function of the Rural Sector: The Case of Calcutta, India", Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol. 36, No.2, January.

Siddiqui, K. (1982). The Political Economy of Rural Poverty in Bangladesh, National Institute of Local Government, Dacca.

Causes of pauperization. Discusses role kinship, religion, etc. in continuation poverty.

Singh, I. (1988). "Land and Labor in South Asia", World Bank Discussion Paper, No.33, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Sobhan, Rehman (1983). "Distributive Regimes under Public Enterprise: a Case Study of the Bangladesh Experience", in: Frances Stewart (ed.), pp. 138-67.

Public enterprise as distributive mechanism. Distributive regimes tend to be conditioned by prevailing dispensation of class forces within polity. Not conspicuously successful: limited benefit working class; some increase earnings farm sector; indirectly contributed to government revenue - not always used for redistributive programmes, no significant contribution to employment or meeting basic needs poor.

Society for Participatory Research in Asia (1987). Creating Alternatives: Women and Work, Society for Participatory Research, New Delhi, 24 pp.

Booklet by Oxfam America based on a workshop in 1986, where people of 17 projects (India and Bangladesh) reflected on efforts with women around work and economic issues. 1 Women and work. 2. Strengthen women's work. 3. Organisational models for empowerment.

Squire, Lyn (1981). Employment Policy in Developing Countries. A Survey of Issues and Evidence, Oxford University Press, published for the World Bank, New York etc.

Srinivasan, P. T. (1981). Malnutrition: Some Measurement and Policy Issues, World Bank Reprint Series No.178, Rome.

Srinivasan, T.N. and P. K. Bardhan (eds.) (1988). Rural Poverty in South Asia, Columbia University Press, New York, 565 pp.

18 articles on poverty, trends, influences, employment-unemployment, welfare policies (RDP, see chapter 12), sex bias in food allocation and child survival (Sen, and Bardhan), and political economy/class structure. Mostly on India, except one article on Bangladesh, one on Pakistan, and one on Sri Lanka (plus discussion Sen-Bhalla). Much of material older than date publication suggests.

Standing, Guy (1980). "Migration and Modes of Exploitation: Social origins of Immobility and Mobility", Journal of Peasants Studies, Vol. VIII, pp. 173-211.

Standing, Guy (ed.) (1985). Labour Circulation and the Labour Process, Croom Helm, London etc.

Standing, Hilary (1985). "Resources, Wages and Power: The Impact of Women's Employment on the Urban Bengali Household", in: Haleh Afshar (ed.), Women, Work, and Ideology in the Third World, Tavistock Publications, London and New York.

Standing, Hilary (1991). Dependence and Autonomy. Women's employment and the family in Calcutta (London, Routledge.

Stewart, Frances (1983). "Inequality, Technology and Payment Systems", in: Frances Stewart (ed.), pp. 1-31.

Way in which interaction between technology, population growth and payment system is responsible for growing inequality in many poor countries. Payment systems: set of rules governing property rights, access to work and income from work (traditional, capitalist, mixed and socialist). Capitalist and mixed economy payments are largely responsible for increasing poverty despite growth.

Stewart, Frances (ed.) (1983). Work, Income and Inequality, Macmillan, London.

Streeten, Paul (1984). "Basic Needs: Some Unsettled Questions", World Development, Vol.12, No.9.

Sukhatme, P. V. (1978). "Assessment of Adequacy of Diets at Different Income Levels", Economic and Political Weekly, 13, 31-33, pp. 1373-84.

Thakur, D.S. (1985). "A Survey of Literature on Rural Poverty in India", Margin, April, pp. 32-49.

Tinker, Irene (ed.) (1990). Persistent Inequalities. Women in World Development, Oxford University Press, 302 pp.

Book as celebration of Boserup's "Women's Role in Economic Development" (1970) which was base for modern women studies, "women in development". With contribution of Boserup, and feminist critique. Tinker's introduction gives a good overview of the article. See contributions of Jane S. Jaquette on different concepts of justice (equality, merit, welfare/need); Amartya Sen on "cooperative conflicts" within households and food entitlements within the family; Senauer analysis of three case studies (incl. Sri Lanka) on behaviour within household and women's opportunities outside the household; Papanek on patriarchal perceptions of obligations imposed on Asian women.

Toye, John (1987). Dilemmas of Development, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.

Tray, Dennis de (1989). "Reducing Poverty in Developing Countries - Some Basic Principles for Policy Design", The Pakistan Development Review, 28, 4, part 1, Winter, pp. 437-63.

The author takes a pragmatic policy-oriented look at previous efforts aimed at reducing poverty. The basic message is that policy-makers and researchers failed to pay due attention to what was already known about institutional and infrastructural constraints, leakages in transfer programmes and increasing costs of income-generating programmes for the poor, because of problems in reaching the poor. The author stresses the importance of an adequate macro-economic framework (stabilization policies and structural adjustment programmes). While discussing the policies for reducing poverty, he details the problem of identifying the poor because of measurement problems, but mainly because of problems in exclusive targeting. Regarding anti-poverty, the author divides poverty issues and policies in (a) policies transferring consumption to the poor now and (b) policies that endow people with improved earning capacities in the future. In this context education and training play a key role in all poverty alleviation programmes.

Tulpule, Bagaram and Ramesh C. Datta (1988). "Real Wages in Indian Industry", Economic and Political Weekly, October 29, pp. 2275-2277.

Tyler, Godfrey J., Riad El-Ghonemy and Yves Couvreur (1993). "Alleviating Rural Poverty Through Agricultural Growth", The Journal of Development Studies, Vol.29, No.2, January, pp. 358-364.

Examines role of agricultural GDP growth in alleviating rural poverty 21 developing countries. Regression analysis shows that GDP growth takes very long time to reduce poverty. Decreases in land concentration could have more immediate impact. Preferred approach: combination of equitable growth and redistributive measures.

UNICEF (1987). "Sri Lanka: The Social Impact of Economic Policies During the Last Decade", in: G. Cornia et al. (eds), Adjustment with a Human Face, Clarendon, Oxford.

Upadhyay, Kiran Dutta (1989). "Rural Poverty and Ecological Balance: A Socio-Economic Note on Phewatal Watershed Catchment in the Western Hill of Nepal", The Economic Journal of Nepal, Vol.12, No.3, Issue 47, July-September, pp. 36-48.

Brief socio-economic description area of rural development project. Ethnic composition of population, farm size and land: concentration in hands upper castes. Income from pensions (military) and off-farm work. Role women. Popular participation and problems.

Weiner, Myron (1978). Sons of the Soil. Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 383 pp.

Studies the relationship between internal migration and ethnic conflict in India. Regions where migrants dominate modern sector of economy, and where indigenous ethnic groups attempt to use political power to overcome fears of economic defeat and cultural subordination. Clash between migrants' claims to equal access to country and locals' claim to equal treatment and protection by the state. Notions of territorial ethnicity, dual labour market, ethnic division of labour. Discussion of citizenship, freedom of internal movement, and the striking fact of recognition of ethnic groups as legal entities (p. 325-32).

White, Sarah C. (1992). Arguing with the Crocodile: Gender and Class in Bangladesh, Zed Books, London.

(Review JPS) Incorporates role of women in investigation peasant class formation. Women as objects of policies. Class as vital concept social inequality. Effect new agrarian technologies on access to markets. Markets are gender-segmented, marketisation has gender-specific effects.

Wignaraja, P. (1990). Women, Poverty and Resources, Sage, New Delhi.

Wilkinson, Frank (1991). "Structuring of Economy and Social Deprivation and the Working of the Labour Markets in Industrial Countries", Labour and Society, 16, 2, pp. 119-38.

World Bank (1987). Bangladesh: Promoting Higher Growth and Human Development, The World Bank, Washington DC.

Chapter 6. People living in extreme poverty increased 1974-82. Appears at least not to have deteriorated 1982-87, slight decline (but still increase number). Rise in real wage: caused by institutional changes and special programs and underlying economic factors (migration, change rural power structure). Access to income earning opportunities and purchasing power - more than food availability, nutrition and health - will determine whether "hard core' poor are to improve their lot (p. 142). Chapter 7. Promoting income opportunities: self-employment (group formation, credit, technology, skills), infrastructure programs and employment creation, urban informal sector, strengthening institutions for employment promotion. Chapter 8. Opportunities for women. Most live in traditional roles, limited access to markets, productive services, schooling, health care and local government. Locks women into high fertility patterns which diminishes family well-being, damage health children, frustrate education (p. 161). Programs for women. Strategy: improving policy/implementation, expanding education/training, expanding fertility choice, relief program, expanding target group program.

World Bank (1989). Nepal. Policies for Improving Growth and Alleviating Poverty, A World Bank Country Study, The World Bank, Washington, DC, 150 pp.

Nepal at critical juncture: no sustained economic progress in excess of population. In recent years government has launched initiatives to accelerate growth and meet basic needs. Basic needs in different sector. Strengthening institutions. Basic needs as first full-fledged poverty alleviation programme: must be through increasing income, driven by private sector, stresses development farmland; and number of measures targeted for the poorest, which are limited in scope.

World Bank (1991). Nepal. Poverty and Incomes, A Joint Study of The World Bank and UNDP, A World Bank Country Study, The World Bank, Washington, DC, 230 pp.

Poverty in Nepal is chronic, rooted in the insufficiency of resource base vis. a vis. "excessive population" - solution productivity growth with population control, but will take a long time. Poverty stems from 4 factors: limited resource base; physical location between 2 large, poor countries; rapid population growth; poor economic performance (under 3 per cent GDP growth p.a. over last 25 years). 3 poverty lines: 40 per cent-71 per cent below poverty line. Predominantly rural economy sustains a relatively even income distribution - yet localised studies show large disparities: distribution of assets is more skewed than that of income. Priorities for poverty alleviation should be: curb population growth; agricultural programme; rural access in terai and hills; intensification basic education; low-cost measures poorest.

Zaidi, M. Ashgar (1992). "Relative Poverty in Pakistan. An Estimation from the Household Income and Expenditure Survey (1984-85)", The Pakistan Development Review, 31, 4, Winter, pp. 955-74.