Part I. Human Resources Development

Chapter IV. Programmes for particular areas or branches of economic activity

258. Although Convention No. 142 specifically states that vocational training systems should be gradually extended to all sectors of the economy and branches of economic activity, (Endnote 1) Recommendation No. 150 reflects the concern of governments and the social partners to pay special attention to areas or branches of economic activity "in which comprehensive improvement action or major structural change is required" (Endnote 2) This instrument specifically deals with rural areas, branches of economic activity using obsolescent technologies and methods of work, industries and undertakings in decline or converting their activities and new industries. (Endnote 3) Although the informal sector is not specifically mentioned in the standards, it will also be examined in this chapter.

Section 1. Rural areas

259. Recommendation No. 150 gives attention to programmes for rural areas because, when it was being drafted, there was an awareness that problems existed, especially in developing countries, to which the Vocational Training (Agriculture) Recommendation, 1956 (No. 101), hardly alluded; and that there was a need to take steps to modernise the rural sector, introduce improved educational and training methods and broaden the personal scope of programmes and campaigns to achieve equality of opportunity of the rural and urban populations as regards vocational guidance and vocational training. (Endnote 4)

260. Recommendation No. 150 states that the basic aim of programmes for rural areas is to achieve full equality of opportunity for the rural and urban populations as regards vocational guidance and vocational training. (Endnote 5) Generally speaking, the reports examined do not specifically mention this objective; at most, a number of national authorities seem to consider that it is achieved by the implementation of appropriate programmes or that equal opportunity is no longer a national issue. In Germany, for example, the Government points out that the imbalance in training that previously existed between urban and rural regions has to a great extent disappeared; but it acknowledges that young people from rural areas are still encountering considerable difficulties in finding training positions outside the agricultural sector; however, older agricultural workers are affected by the consequences of structural change in agriculture and, bearing this in mind, the Government has taken measures to alleviate the social consequences of this change.

261. These programmes should also take account of trends in migration between rural and urban areas. (Endnote 6) The reports tend to have little to say on this subject, except when referring to cases of workers leaving agriculture or diversifying their activities -- which does not necessarily involve migration. Since 1986, Canada has been conducting a rural transition programme (CRTP) to help those who give up agricultural work and look for different work. Assistance includes counselling, incentives to employers to hire family members, relocation, training and travel allowances and income support if a new business is established. In Germany, young tenant farmers, especially those on small-scale farms may take part in a vocational training programme for non-agricultural work in order to obtain income-earning opportunities outside the agricultural sector. There are also redeployment programmes in Spain.

262. Programmes covered by the Recommendation should make adequate provision for the special vocational guidance and vocational training needs of both agricultural workers and persons engaged in non-agricultural occupations, whilst taking account of differences in needs according to the type of rural activity involved and its degree of mechanisation, specialisation and modernisation. (Endnote 7) To this end, a number of countries have set up national boards or institutes to plan, develop, supervise, co-ordinate and apply vocational guidance and training programmes for rural areas. (Endnote 8) The activities of these boards and institutes and the schools under them are extremely varied; but the reports do not specify to what extent they take account of and respond to rural workers' needs. In Argentina, for example, the National Technical Education Board (CONET) is attempting to develop vocational training not only to meet the needs of rural life but also to promote productive activity: part of its programme is to organise courses in rural carpentry, electricity for rural areas, general mechanics or rural construction. Mexico and the Netherlands are also examples of countries in which training is extremely diversified in such areas as forestry, stock-raising, fishing and horticulture.

263. Amongst the different measures taken by governments in various fields, mention should also be made of financial subsidies for vocational training or further training. In Germany, tenant farmers receive financial assistance when they undergo vocational retraining; none the less, it has not been felt necessary to draw up special vocational guidance and training programmes for rural areas. In the United Kingdom, the Training Agency takes stock of recent training including in enterprises in rural areas in order to identify the needs of rural residents; the Youth Training Scheme includes a wide range of courses for rural occupations. Under a project in Argentina, those from rural areas may receive vocational training for agricultural tasks and primary sector trades during their military service. Other countries also refer to rural training programmes, including training in the new technologies of agriculture and stock-raising. (Endnote 9) In an attempt to come to grips with concealed unemployment, Turkey offers short-term occupational training courses. In Germany, the social partners actively participate in formulating standards which regulate training and further training in the agricultural sector, so that the systems may match the needs of the job market. A number of countries have introduced projects on the environment: there are several development projects concerning rural areas in the United Kingdom.

264. A number of reports refer to training in the organisation of co-operatives and agricultural enterprise management, (Endnote 10) without, however, going into details as to the content or form of the programmes. In Argentina, CONET is developing training in the management of agricultural and co-operative enterprises. In the United Kingdom, the agricultural training agency provides training in enterprise management and organisation. As regards countries in which vocational guidance and training facilities and programmes for rural areas are as yet little developed, reports mention only that national vocational training agencies and services exist. Although a number of countries are not in a position to provide adequate services for the rural population as a whole and might concentrate action temporarily on specific geographical areas or categories of workers, (Endnote 11) as provided for under Recommendation No. 150, the Committee notes that the reports make no mention of this.

Section 2. Specific branches of activity

265. Like rural areas, branches of economic activity under the terms of the Recommendation "using obsolescent technologies and methods of work" have been considered worthy of particular attention. The Recommendation advocates that vocational guidance and vocational training programmes should be developed as appropriate along similar lines to those for rural areas, particularly with respect to equality of opportunity between rural and urban populations. These programmes should enable persons employed in or entering these branches of activity to participate in or contribute to the modernisation of methods and products and to benefit from changes introduced. It is impossible to determine from the information contained in the governments' reports to what extent these provisions of the Recommendation are put into effect. Indeed, most of the measures mentioned refer to policies to combat unemployment. They particularly concern workers affected by the reconversion of industries or enterprises and will be examined in the following section.

Section 3. Industries and enterprises in decline or converting their activities

266. During the past few years, the industrial structures of many countries have undergone profound upheavals. Changes in the supply and demand of goods and services have been brought about by changes in the price of sources of energy, the introduction of new technologies, shifts in the relative share of branches of activity, the opening up of markets on a world scale and environmental concerns. As mentioned above, the emergence of new goods and services and the introduction of new production methods often require further training and retraining programmes to maintain jobs; they may also lead to the closure of enterprises and sometimes even to the disappearance of whole branches of activity. (Endnote 12)

267. Recommendation No. 150 provides for specific measures for industries or enterprises in decline or converting their activities.

268. As regards the first case, Paragraph 42 of Recommendation No. 150 states that when industries or undertakings begin to decline, workers affected should receive vocational guidance and vocational training to facilitate a change in skills and provide the opportunity of finding new employment.

269. To stem the tide of mass redundancies, a number of countries have already introduced provisions in their legislation in such areas as periods of notice of dismissal, severance pay, vocational guidance and training and retraining programmes. In this respect, the Committee recalls the provisions in the instruments of 1982 on termination of employment. (Endnote 13) Some countries, including France, set up ad hoc bodies to help workers choose amongst the options open to them; these may include early retirement, the immediate payment of capital and retraining (Endnote 14) Particular attention should be paid to retraining at the time of mass redundancies: factors such as age, education, mobility and the number of persons involved may limit its efficacity and should therefore be taken into account; personal follow-up (Endnote 15) and concerted and continuous action become vital at this stage.

270. In many countries, training after termination of employment (Endnote 16) is provided through existing educational and training structures; but, given the importance of the issue, some governments have made training a priority (Endnote 17) by introducing assistance measures which take account of the scale of the problems. For example, in Central and Eastern European countries, where structural changes are expected to be major, the approach will have to be more global (Endnote 18) because there will be a surplus of staff in a number of sectors at the same time; in some other countries, measures are aimed at branches of activity in difficulty (Endnote 19) or depressed areas. (Endnote 20)

271. Retraining may take different forms, when for example it is undertaken by a worker who leaves of his own accord, (Endnote 21) precedes dismissal, or contributes assistance to employers. (Endnote 22) In Canada, the Federal Canada Employment and Immigration Commission has launched the Canadian Jobs Strategy, one of the components of which deals with acquiring skills. This programme provides grants for training workers for technological change, mobility assistance and various other measures of occupational adjustment.

272. Structural adjustment programmes carry social costs and governments cope with these in various ways, including programmes to combat unemployment, reorganisation of their training policies and redeployment activities. However, the government reports concerning vocational training with a view to redeployment do not give any indication of the importance now or in the future of this vital issue -- one which the Governing Body has decided to include on the agenda of the 79th (1992) Session of the International Labour Conference in an item entitled "Adjustment and human resources development".

273. As far as industries or enterprises converting their activities are concerned, Paragraph 43 of Recommendation No. 150 stipulates that "workers affected should in good time receive training, organised in co-operation with the industries or undertakings concerned, to enable them to adapt themselves to their new tasks". Retraining can help cope with the impact of structural adjustment, which requires the adoption of new production techniques and constant changes in the skills required of the labour force. (Endnote 23) A number of countries organise programmes to retrain workers affected by structural adjustment and technological development. (Endnote 24) Moreover, some of the reports examined refer specifically to training measures and courses linked to the reconversion of enterprises and retraining of workers. (Endnote 25) In Austria, for instance, grants are given to enterprises whenever a reduction in or reconversion of their activities might affect the employees in the short term. In Sweden, grants may be provided to employers for training workers whose skills have become obsolete and whose jobs have changed as a result of structural change within the enterprise. In Spain, the Job Solidarity Fund finances occupational training carried out within the enterprise itself or through employers' and workers' organisations to help workers adjust or retrain if there are technical changes in production methods: one of the aims of the National Training and Occupational Integration Plan is to develop further retraining and training in occupational skills with a view to adapting instruction to the needs of the production system. In Cyprus, retraining is designed for workers made redundant as a result of technological or structural change to enable them to take on jobs: it is carried out within the enterprise and employers receive grants to cover, amongst other things, instructors' pay and the costs of equipment required for training. In Finland, retraining is organised for persons whose career prospects have deteriorated as a result of structural change within the economy and within the occupational structure itself. Some countries have training centres or programmes for workers threatened with unemployment or who wish to take the courses or are snt by the enterprises employing them. (Endnote 26)

Section 4. New industries

274. The establishment of new industries may require vocational guidance and vocational training measures that take account of certain specific needs and requirements. Recommendation No. 150 stipulates that account should be taken of needs for workers, including independent workers, for specialists, managers, administrators and subcontractors, and the need to provide information, vocational guidance, vocational training and vocational retraining for persons whose knowledge and skills are rendered obsolete, and the need to provide new opportunities for independent workers and entrepreneurs whose businesses suffer from the competition created by the new industries. (Endnote 27) Government reports do not usually refer to vocational guidance and vocational retraining programmes specifically set up in connection with the establishment of new industries and taking account of the above-mentioned factors. However, Finland mentions the existence of courses for workers in new enterprises. Furthermore, some measures that apply mainly to branches of economic activity in which working techniques and methods are becoming obsolete and to industries converting their activities, as well as those concerning the introduction of new technologies, might possibly respond to the needs and requirements inherent in the establishment of new industries; the Committee has no precise information from the governments on this matter.

Section 5. The informal sector

275. Purely and simply transposing from the "modern" sector to the informal sector has rarely been successful. However, methods and systems specifically drawn up or adapted for the "formal" sector can increasingly be applied, given the importance of the informal sector, which is covered implicitly by various provisions of the instruments in question.

276. Among small-scale artisans, traditional apprenticeship is still an important way of acquiring skills, costing the State virtually nothing. In Africa, for example, (Endnote 28) attempts are being made to provide apprentices -- and at the same time their apprenticeship masters -- with additional theoretical knowledge, allowing them to improve and update their techniques. Training is dispensed by mobile training units or central support workshops, administered if possible by local groups of artisans. (Endnote 29) Apart from providing the opportunity for self-training, workshops of this type have the added advantage of equipment to which few, if any, of the local artisans have access to produce their own goods. In Costa Rica, for example, the National Apprenticeship Institute is attempting to promote the system of "mecanotheques" or open workshops, where craftsmen may go to make or put the finishing touches to a piece of work, whilst receiving advice from an instructor.

277. By working through these groups of artisans, workshops or central organisations, it is possible to meet vital needs for further training and provide an introduction to the rudiments of managing a micro-enterprise -- including bookkeeping, ways of obtaining credit, drawing up estimates or specifications, reading schedules, equipping a workshop, maintaining tools, occupational safety and health, labour legislation, ways of reusing scraps or off-cuts and the manufacture of tools or spare parts. This method also facilitates literacy training if necessary or gives guidance on how to sell goods on the market. The Committee has been informed that the ILO has experimented in the introduction of grass-root management training (GMT) in the field, which is particularly adapted to people who are illiterate or nearly illiterate; (Endnote 30) this system uses a hundred or so drawings and some 12 skits to convey a message to heads of micro-enterprises in the informal sector, especially women. These drawings and skits usually describe scenes at the market or workshop and depict everyday events to which the participants may relate. Whatever pedagogical support is used, it must be linked to practical issues encountered by workers in the informal sector and centred on problems they have to solve, and advice is also given during the training.

278. The advantage of various schemes used is that they make up for the shortcomings of official institutions which require a certain level of prior instruction. Co-operation with non-governmental organisations which are well versed in the conditions in the informal sector is of specific interest in this context.

279. A number of countries have made special efforts in this sector. In Brazil, for example, there are various programmes to help workers build and maintain their own dwellings or provide assistance for the management of micro-enterprises. In Chile, the Act of 1989 on the status of training and employment provides for the training by the State of self-employed workers living on the fringe of society or in conditions of extreme poverty in urban or rural areas; assistance is also provided to these workers and their families. In Colombia, the central body, SENA, dispenses training which is specifically geared to these elements of society, as part of a programme to help the people improve their occupational status. In Ecuador, training programmes are organised for the informal sector, especially in the cities. The Government of Jordan refers to efforts made by officials of the national occupational training organisation or counsellors to persuade young people who have left school and are employed in small workshops to enrol in a regular vocational training course: when visiting these young people, it is not uncommon for the officials to assist artisans. (Endnote 31)

Endnotes

Endnote 2

Endnote 3

Endnote 4

Endnote 5

Endnote 6

Endnote 7

Endnote 8

Endnote 9

Endnote 10

Endnote 11

Endnote 12

Endnote 13

Endnote 14

Endnote 15

Endnote 16

Endnote 17

Endnote 18

Endnote 19

Endnote 20

Endnote 21

Endnote 22

Endnote 23

Endnote 24

Endnote 26

Endnote 27

Endnote 28

Endnote 29

Endnote 30

Endnote 31

Cross references
Constitution: Article 19
Constitution: Article 22
Constitution: Article 35
Recommendations:R101 Vocational Training (Agriculture) Recommendation, 1956