Part I. Human Resources Development

Chapter I. Policies and programmes

59. In accordance with Article 1 of the Human Resources Development Convention, 1975, each Member should "adopt and develop comprehensive and co-ordinated policies and programmes of vocational guidance and vocational training". The two terms "policies and programmes" clearly imply a strategy consisting of policies to be implemented by means of concrete programmes. The fact that both terms are in the plural reflects the extent and diversity of the subjects concerned, especially as regards vocational training, and the great number and variety of types of laws and measures adopted and of bodies and institutions established to implement them.

60. Indeed, the matters and persons covered by the instruments are particularly widely conceived. Articles 2 and 4 of the Convention clearly imply that it embraces all systems of vocational education, guidance and training, whether the activities take place within the system of school education or outside it. The standards concern all sectors of the economy and branches of economic activity and all levels of skill and responsibility, and apply both to young persons and to adults (Article 4) -- whether they are in an employment relationship or not -- and "without any discrimination whatsoever" (Article 1, paragraph 5), in categories as varied as those mentioned in Recommendation No. 150: men and women, rural as well as urban, older workers, disabled persons, migrants, and members of linguistic and other minority groups.

61. The Committee intends to examine, in the first section below, the extent to which policies and programmes have been elaborated, the different types of instrument used to this effect, the principal objectives pursued, the competent bodies or institutions, in federal as well as other States, and the scope of the measures introduced, as well as co-ordinating mechanisms, the problems they raise and the solutions found by various member States. The next topic to be dealt with is the close link between vocational guidance and training and employment to be established in accordance with Article 1, paragraph 1, in particular through public employment services, as well as the manner in which the various factors mentioned in the same Article are taken into account, the part played by employers' and workers' organisations, and the role of research and of periodic reviews of policies and programmes. The second section will deal with the implementation of objectives so as to "establish and develop open, flexible and complementary systems".

Section 1. One general policy or a series of policies

62. Unlike employment policy, (Endnote 1) to which reference is made in the preamble to Recommendation No. 150, few countries report that they have declared a general policy on this matters. (Endnote 2) This is due, no doubt, to the complexity of the wide scope of the overall concept of human resources development and the diversity of the authorities responsible. However, this general survey will certainly discuss, on the one hand, the effects (apart from the importance of employment policy) (Endnote 3) of the national economic and social development plan in a number of developing countries (Endnote 4) and, on the other hand, the role that studies, official reports or White Papers submitted for wide public debate both among interested parties and in parliament, can play in the design or revision of an appropriate strategy; though these documents and debates usually deal with only one aspect of a broad subject (for example adult education or university education), (Endnote 5) taken together they often prepare the ground for significant reforms.

63. Some countries have referred to vocational guidance and vocational training policies, (Endnote 6) but the majority have an education policy (generally in the wide sense, including technical and vocational education at least), (Endnote 7) or a vocational training policy (Endnote 8) or both, (Endnote 9) or even regional (Endnote 10) or sectoral policies or policies concerning specific areas or categories. (Endnote 11) Most countries have referred to a national vocational training scheme or programme. (Endnote 12) One country indicates that less institutionalisation or less interventionism by the public authorities might be in keeping with a policy relying on regulation of the labour market through the mechanisms of supply and demand, as is the case in countries where the apprenticeship system is particularly advanced. (Endnote 13)

(a) Objectives

64. One of the major objectives assigned to these policies and programmes by Article 1 of Convention No. 142 is, of course, employment, and this is confirmed in Paragraph 15(3) of Recommendation No. 150. This will be discussed in greater detail below in the context of "vocational guidance and vocational training closely linked with employment", and later chapters will examine the various systems and measures to combat unemployment and underemployment.

65. Article 4 of the Convention requires that vocational training systems "meet the needs for vocational training throughout life of both young persons and adults ...", thus covering initial training, further training (especially refresher training to cope with new technologies) and retraining, in keeping with the increasingly prevalent concept of continuing or permanent training. These different kinds of training will, moreover, enable mistakes of vocational guidance to be remedied and adjustments to new developments to be made. They will be examined in greater detail in Chapter III below. The importance of these various aspects is clearly established by Recommendation No. 150.

66. In this respect, Article 1 of Convention No. 142 requires that "comprehensive and co-ordinated policies and programmes" be adopted and developed. It determines objectives which go well beyond access to and preparation for employment, stating in paragraph 2 that "(t)hese policies and programmes shall take due account of: ... (c) the mutual relationships between human resources development and other economic, social and cultural objectives". It stipulates in paragraph 4 that "(t)he policies and programmes shall be designed to improve the ability of the individual to understand and, individually or collectively, to influence the working and social environment", finally stating in paragraph 5: "The policies and programmes shall encourage and enable all persons, on an equal basis and without any discrimination whatsoever, to develop and use their capabilities for work in their own best interests and in accordance with their own aspirations, account being taken of the needs of society". Several provisions of Recommendation No. 150, for example Paragraph 4(6) and 6(a) and (e), are more explicit as to these general objectives.

67. Various countries have indicated that they are pursuing one or more of these objectives: the vocational training policy of Brazil during the 1980s was designed to create conditions which would allow greater worker participation in the country's economic, political, social and cultural life; Colombia has included among the functions of its central training organisation (SENA) integrated training, which would provide citizens with "the necessary moral and cultural values"; the Act establishing an organisation of this kind in the Dominican Republic refers in its preamble not only to productivity, but also to "human promotion and social advancement of the population"; Venezuela includes among its educational aims that of "promoting active participation, with full awareness and in a spirit of solidarity, in the process of social change", while Turkey states that its adult education scheme includes socio-cultural programmes. (Endnote 14) Many other countries, either explicitly or implicitly, assign economic, social and cultural objectives to their human resources development policies and programmes, and, as this general survey will demonstrate, there is a tendency to relate practical training to the economic environment. The Committee is of the opinion that the provisions of Convention No. 142 and Recommendation No. 150 quoted above should be duly taken into consideration by countries defining their human resources development policy objectives.

(b) Measures to ensure the implementation of policies and programmes

(i) Constitutional provisions

68. These usually relate to the fundamental rights laid down in various countries and, in particular, the rights to education, (Endnote 15) vocational training (Endnote 16) and in some cases freedom of instruction, which may occasionally be conditional, (Endnote 17) and the principles of non-discrimination and the free choice of trade or profession. (Endnote 18)

(ii) Legislation

69. The countries that have ratified this Convention, and many of those that have not yet done so, usually have an act or statutory order on education (Endnote 19) (sometimes with special provisions for higher education) and on vocational training, (Endnote 20) providing the basis for the relevant structures and activities. Some legislation deals with the specific field of training (for example, retraining in the United States). During the most recent revision of federal law in Switzerland, there was a debate as to whether vocational guidance and vocational training should be dealt with in a single or separate texts, and it was finally decided to make a single law. In view of the incomplete nature of available information, it is impossible to state how often national legislation concerning vocational guidance has been adopted: but it is not unusual for legislative provisions to establish the right of free choice of occupation, (Endnote 21) or the right to education and training. (Endnote 22)

70. It is worth noting that, when a country has adopted a labour code, (Endnote 23) the Code traditionally contains at least some basic provisions concerning apprenticeship (apprenticeship contract, rights and duties of master and apprentice, etc.), and there is currently a tendency to include provisions concerning other aspects of vocational training, such as continuing training. (Endnote 24)

(iii) Regulations, including enforcement regulations, and administrative measures

71. In several countries, certain questions concerning the development of human resources are regulated by regulations, (Endnote 25) which which can often be enacted and amended more rapidly than statutes; depending on tradition or the legal system, the labour code and legislative texts can be supplemented by a substantial body of regulations. (Endnote 26) In practice administrative measures play a major role.

(iv) The situation of federal States (Endnote 27)

72. Although a federal structure can give rise to complex problems in respect of the application of the Convention, the Committee notes that many States with such a structure have ratified the Convention. Such states include Germany, where practical training given outside school comes under federal jurisdiction (but the Länder hold co-ordinating meetings on education); Austria, where the Länder have adopted laws and established their own organisations; Australia, where the governments of states and territories are responsible for legislation and administration in matters concerning vocational education and training in the areas within their jurisdiction; (Endnote 28) Brazil and Mexico, where labour legislation is the responsibility of the federal Government. They also include Switzerland, where vocational training is governed by a federal Act and a federal Decree implemented by cantonal laws, and where training programmes, examinations and the certificates issued are usually federal, but where certain specified trades and professions come under cantonal legislation; (Endnote 29) the Swiss cantons supervise apprenticeship and organise vocational education and examinations. In Czechoslovakia, the Czech and Slovak Republics each have their own ministries and legislative bodies; in the USSR, there are provisions in the constitutions and legislation at all levels; in Yugoslavia, labour legislation is the responsibility of the federation, the Republics and the Provinces, while education and training are primarily regulated by the Republics and the Provinces.

73. Among the federal States which have not ratified Convention No. 142 are Canada, where a number of measures have been adopted at provincial level; and the United States, where an important federal law on vocational education was passed in 1984 (Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act), which the various states are responsible for enforcing: a considerable role is played by federal subsidies.

(v) Collective agreements and other contractual provisions

74. Human resources development is regarded as a matter of common interest for State, employers and workers and, because of its relevance to the realities of working life at all levels, lends itself particularly to collective bargaining at national, sectoral and even enterprise level. The Committee has not been in a position to conduct an in-depth analysis of collective agreements concerning training (vocational guidance being in any case rarely mentioned in collective agreements), owing to the limited amount of information received on this subject. (Endnote 30)

75. The Committee has found that in France, where many collective agreements had long contained only very general provisions on training or referred to schedules which had not always been adopted, the introduction of new technologies and the training necessary for the regrading of workers in connection with reorganisation or personnel cutbacks have been a source of enrichment in collective bargaining as they have in several other countries; recent enterprise agreements have even produced original and innovative formulas. What is more, under a recent Act, the branch or enterprise agreement must cover the objectives and means of training. (Endnote 31) Yugoslavia provides a similar example in this respect. (Endnote 32)

76. Furthermore, in France, certain major national agreements (Endnote 33) -- for example, those concerning continuing training or redeployment -- have prepared the way for legislation and financial aid from the State, a process that some jurists called "negotiated legislation". It is common practice for collective agreements to fix remuneration rates of apprentices in France, as well as in Germany and Denmark.

77. Training "agreements" are frequently concluded between the public authorities or bodies responsible for training schemes and training institutions, or even enterprises. (Endnote 34) They involve a type of subcontracting accompanied by financial aid or subsidies.

78. An examination of the application of Article 5 of the Convention concerning co-operation with employers' and workers' organisations will provide additional information on certain points mentioned here.

(vi) Arbitration awards and case law

79. Whether they confirm an agreement or settle a dispute, arbitration awards traditionally play a particularly important role in Australia. Some of these awards contain provisions on wages and on other aspects such as age limits for apprenticeship. The past few years have seen a tendency to enrich their content and to link remuneration levels and structures more closely with training, as well as to stimulate career policies.

80. Apart from the few cases referred to elsewhere concerning the interpretation of constitutional provisions, the information received contains no mention of decisions in case law that have had any major influence on the field of human resources development.

(c) Co-ordination of the policies and programmes

(i) Competent authorities or bodies

81. In a field as broad as human resources development, it is rare for one body, one specific ministry for example, to have sole competence. Admittedly, some countries have entrusted what might be termed a predominant role to one ministry -- usually the ministry of education, (Endnote 35) occasionally supported by a "state secretariat" for technical and vocational education (Endnote 36) or vocational training (Endnote 37) -- but the specialised ministries, such as those responsible for public health, agriculture and fishery workers, generally retain authority over training within their own jurisdiction. In several countries of Central and Eastern Europe, however, the traditional competence of the ministry of education does not necessarily prevent the ministry responsible for labour issues from playing a role. (Endnote 38)

82. In most countries, the questions (including educational guidance) dealt with by Convention No. 142 for the most part come under the ministry of education and the ministry of labour (mainly for training activities outside the system of formal education, such as apprenticeship and other in-service training, special programmes to combat unemployment or in favour of various disadvantaged groups, and for vocational guidance provided under the auspices of the employment services). However, apart from the ministries of agriculture and health (for medical and paramedical personnel, perhaps for disabled persons), other ministries in various countries may intervene in the development of human resources: the ministries for planning, (Endnote 39) youth and sport, development (in particular rural development), social affairs (although this is frequently merged with the ministry of labour), the public service, industry, trade, small businesses, public works, communications and transport, energy (Endnote 40) or mining, tourism, housing and construction (Endnote 41) or other sectoral ministries, (Endnote 42) justice (vocational training for prisoners), the interior (e.g. for the police, firemen and emergency services), and defence (for the armed forces). There is also evidence of an increasing role played by the social security organisations in various countries in co-ordinating programmes to combat unemployment or (for example, in Australia) in favour of disabled persons.

83. In addition to the earlier observations concerning various States with a federal structure, it should be emphasised that certain countries, such as Italy, for example, tend to delegate considerable authority to the regions, to such an extent that these have their own rules in this respect.

(ii) Forms of co-ordination

84. From the first discussion held with a view to adopting new standards during the 59th Session of the International Labour Conference in 1974, the report of the Committee on Human Resources emphasised that "polices, programmes and standards defined by the ILO should help to overcome the problems resulting from the fact that, in member States, a number of ministries were concerned with guidance, training and education, which implied the risk of duplication, friction and waste". (Endnote 43) Even sectoral programmes or programmes linked to investment projects, close as they are to reality, require co-ordination to economise on human, financial and material resources and to increase their effectiveness.

85. It is not unusual for ministries of employment and vocational training to be established to deal with labour issues in general. Such ministries, like the ministry of labour itself in some countries, are in an ideal position to assume a co-ordinating role which the ministry of education does not have. However, the plurality of ministries and other competent authorities has, in many countries, given rise to the creation of a co-ordinating body, usually with an advisory capacity but sometimes with decision-making powers, for example, in respect of certificates, licences and diplomas, their recognition, the setting of training standards, the harmonisation of programmes. (Endnote 44)

86. With the exception of small States, where informal contacts between government officials generally suffice, such bodies have usually been established at national level under various names: interdepartmental co-ordinating committees, (Endnote 45) national education board, (Endnote 46) technical and vocational education board, (Endnote 47) apprenticeship board, (Endnote 48) apprenticeship and training board, (Endnote 49) vocational training board. (Endnote 50) In Mexico, the training and employment co-ordinating structures and agreements appear to be especially developed, and this applies also to interdepartmental and inter-state co-ordination. In some countries, such as Spain, the national vocational training board is also responsible for vocational guidance; in others, such as Finland or Sweden, there is a special national board for this purpose. Panama is planning to strengthen co-ordination through the creation of a technical committee, with an advisory committee, under the auspices of the Ministry of Planning and Economic Policy. In Jordan, co-ordination is mainly the responsibility of the National Planning Board. In Egypt, "Human Resources Development" is part of the name of the board. Other countries also have specialised co-ordinating bodies. (Endnote 51)

87. The number and responsibility level of members of the co-ordinating bodies have given rise to problems in more than one case. Moreover, the general survey of the reports relating to the Consultation (Industrial and National Levels) Recommendation, 1960 (No. 113), drew attention to the fact that many bodies of this kind have ceased to function or function only imperfectly. (Endnote 52) The information received shows that different countries have sought different solutions: a limit on the number of members and the establishment of subcommittees or specialised groups with the possibility of consulting experts not having the right to vote, smaller permanent structures able to meet more frequently, (Endnote 53) or systematic appointment of members. (Endnote 54)

88. The secretariat plays an important part in the smooth running of such bodies, and this is frequently entrusted to the ministry mainly responsible for vocational training outside the system of formal education, such as the ministry of labour or its vocational training department.

89. In a number of cases, especially in the industrialised countries, the same types of bodies exist at regional, (Endnote 55) local (Endnote 56) and even at sectoral (Endnote 57) levels. A common example is the boards of educational and training establishments, where teachers or instructors, parents, employers' and workers' organisations, and sometimes pupils are represented. It appears that it is at these levels that the best results have been obtained. (Endnote 58) Yet it is desirable and in keeping with the spirit of Convention No. 142 to have overall co-ordination at the highest level.

90. At least as far as vocational training in the broad sense of the word is concerned, the existence of central bodies (some of these conducting research and providing business consultancy), such as are to be found, in particular, in Latin American (Endnote 59) but also in other countries, (Endnote 60) generally ensures good co-ordination of policies, programmes and activities. In a few countries such as Portugal or Spain or, since 1990, the United Kingdom (in Northern Ireland), a single body is responsible for employment and vocational training. Often such a body has a special statute and legal personality and a fairly broad autonomy, if only so as to be able to recruit personnel at the required level, by offering remuneration which is competitive with the private sector.

91. Although in several cases such bodies also have responsibilities in respect of employment, (Endnote 61) thus enabling them to ensure the linkage stipulated in Convention No. 142 between guidance, training and employment, they do not always have access to sufficient information or receive sufficiently active support from the social partners to ensure harmonisation.

92. In some cases there has been at least a partial shift away from structures imposed by the State towards structures which function independently. This is the case in particular in the United Kingdom where, as a result of the Industrial Training Act of 1964, (Endnote 62) some 30 Industrial Training Boards (ITB) were established for the main branches of economic activity; these were financed by training levies on the wage bill paid by employers. However, in the last few years policy has been to increase the number of Non-Statutory Training Organisations (NSTO), of which there are now over 100 (which may receive subsidies) and to reduce the number of ITBs to seven. The Trades Union Congress (TUC) submitted its observations and the Committee of Experts has examined them in its comments under article 22 of the Constitution on the application of the Convention.

93. Whereas in some countries (Endnote 63) the advisory co-ordinating body focuses mainly on problems of employment, in others operational bodies deal simultaneously with guidance, placement and training, as well as consultation with the persons concerned. (Endnote 64)

(d) Relationship between guidance, training and employment

94. Article 1 of Convention No. 142 requires that Members establish "policies and programmes of vocational guidance and vocational training, closely linked with employment, in particular through public employment services" and "take due account of -- (a) employment needs, opportunities and problems, both regional and national; (b) the stage and level of economic, social and cultural development; and (c) the mutual relationships between human resources development and other economic, social and cultural objectives". Furthermore, Recommendation No. 150 specifies in Paragraph 21 that: "The competent authorities should, in line with national planning and national laws and regulations and after consultation of employers' and workers' organisations, establish national or regional further training plans related to employment."

95. The Committee notes that the in-depth review of the ILO's vocational training programme (1983) (Endnote 65) noted the realistic assessment of training needs, on which successful and efficient policy formulation, planning, organisation and implementation of vocational training all hinge, and emphasised that "the improvement of information on the supply as well as the demand for vocational training at all levels was considered to be a field where concerted action by all interested parties was of vital importance for the development of balanced and efficient vocational training approaches".

96. The public employment services are clearly an ideal vantage point from which to monitor the harmonisation of vocational training and employment, (Endnote 66) and, as Chapter II will show, they play an active role in vocational guidance in many countries. In this context, the Committee refers to the standards on labour administration, employment policy and employment services mentioned earlier. However, the public employment services rarely have such a placement monopoly that they are informed of all job applications and vacancies: some will escape their attention if only because they appear in newspapers (Endnote 67) or in other methods of recruitment for which there is not always an obligation to notify the employment services. Thus the Austrian Congress of Chambers of Workers in its comments has emphasised the importance of reporting all job vacancies in order to provide a better knowledge of the employment situation. This is in keeping with Article 6(c) of the Employment Services Convention, 1948 (No. 88), and Paragraph 25 of the Employment Service Recommendation, 1948 (No. 83). Hence also the additional surveys conducted in countries such as Spain (annually), Mexico, the Philippines, Portugal, or the strengthening of contacts with enterprises (Egypt), the attention given to the regions (Japan) and sectors of economic activity (for example, in Argentina or the Netherlands). Several countries (Endnote 68) referred to their efforts to link technical and vocational education and training to employment prospects.

97. Information available shows, on the one hand, that in many developing countries structural adjustment and the withdrawal of the State from economic affairs have already had the effect of reducing employment opportunities in the public sector, especially for university graduates (for example, in Madagascar and Morocco). On the other hand, it is proving increasingly necessary to manage uncertainties in an economic context characterised by fluctuations, the rapid development of technology and the demands of competition. It is hardly surprising that there is at the same time talk of a crisis in manpower planning. (Endnote 69) Despite these uncertainties, it is essential to plan ahead not only as regards recruitment for enterprises (whence the tendency towards "anticipatory employment management"), (Endnote 70) but also concerning the recruitment of teachers and instructors, and the establishment and equipment of training institutions. The Committee notes with interest that, in line with Paragraph 68(b) of Recommendation No. 150, the Inter-African Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CIADFOR) organised a methodological seminar in 1985 on the analysis of the estimated relationship between training and employment; that the ILO has launched a five-year programme in French-speaking Africa to improve information on the labour market; and that the International Institute of Labour Studies provides advanced courses in the field of statistical surveys of the labour market. (Endnote 71)

98. The relevant provisions of Convention No. 142 and Recommendation No. 150 therefore represent an objective which countries should aim to achieve. (Endnote 72) Continuing or permanent lifelong training -- in particular upgrading training -- is especially important at present, since, as pointed out earlier, it enables initial errors of guidance or planning to be corrected and adaptations to increasingly rapid change to be made.

99. There are better means of adapting the types of training provided to employment needs and prospects. Thus, many countries not only frequently update but also reclassify their lists of recognised occupations, especially occupation with apprenticeships. (Endnote 73) More and more countries are emphasising the importance of broad and sound basic training (Endnote 74) which allows for adjustment, updating and retraining and in general enhances versatility (Endnote 75) and mobility.

100. Apprenticeship systems, if properly organised and supervised so that they do not provide a source of cheap labour, can act as a self-regulating market mechanism. More generally, employers' and workers' organisations or other bodies can, in the course of consultation, or even in their training and guidance activities, constitute powerful corrective and regulatory mechanisms, not least thanks to the use of training levies. Furthermore, evaluations such as follow-up or cohort studies on the progress of persons who have received training, as well as other types of research which will be discussed later, can be extremely useful in harmonising guidance, training and employment.

(e) The role of the social partners (Endnote 76) and other interested bodies

101. Article 5 of Convention No. 142 stipulates that: "Policies and programmes of vocational guidance and vocational training shall be formulated and implemented in co-operation with employers' and workers' organisations and, as appropriate and in accordance with national law and practice, with other interested bodies." Various suggestions as to the forms such co-operation might take are contained in Paragraphs 4(5), 19(2), 22 and 29(2) of Recommendation No. 150. The Committee also notes that the plan of action for training, retraining and labour mobility submitted to the ILO Governing Body at its November 1989 session (Endnote 77) contains useful guide-lines in this respect, in conformity with the standards.

102. As was borne out by the in-depth review of the ILO's vocational training programme, 1983, (Endnote 78) "on the whole, the trend is towards an increased tripartite participation in training needs assessment, policy formulation, organisation, implementation and evaluation".

103. Apart from the role, referred to earlier, that can be played by collective and other agreements concluded at national, regional, local, sectoral or enterprise levels, co-operation within the meaning of the instruments is not limited to mere consultation in the formulation of programmes and policies but extends also to their implementation.

(i) Consultation

104. On the whole, in the States which have ratified the Convention and in several of those which have not yet, most of the above-mentioned bodies have a tripartite structure, be they national, regional, local (Endnote 79) or sectoral boards or agencies. They include bodies responsible for employment and have an influence on vocational education and those that deal with vocational guidance. (Endnote 80) The Committee referred earlier to the problems encountered and the various solutions found to increase the effectiveness of consultation and the involvement of the social partners.

105. In this respect, the Committee notes, or recalls, comments from workers' organisations criticising the narrow scope of the consultation procedures. Thus, in Finland, the employers' confederations STK and LTK have pointed out on several occasions that, in view of the tradition of training in the country's public schools, civil servants tended to make decisions with very little real consultation, whereas the Finnish Trade Union Confederation has complained of the poor level of co-operation within the vocational guidance board. The Fiji Trade Union Congress (FTUC) has stated that, despite their representation on the Fiji National Training Council (FNTC), the workers have had scarcely any say in the formulation of most of the Government's and employers' training programmes. The Ceylon Workers' Congress of Sri Lanka has complained of the absence of tripartite mechanisms for consultation. As the Committee has already had occasion to note, the Trades Union Congress (TUC) in the United Kingdom has over the last few years been criticising the type of member appointed to the various bodies, whereas the Government stresses that these appointments were made after appropriate consultations.

106. It is also quite usual for central training bodies, such as those to be found in most Latin American countries, to have a tripartite board of directors. Furthermore, many educational or training establishments have a board or committee, sometimes called the further training committee, consisting of representatives not only of the teachers but also of local businesses and even workers' organisations, (Endnote 81) parent-teachers associations (Endnote 82) and, more and more often, the pupils themselves, (Endnote 83) as well as other associations or organisations. (Endnote 84) Occasionally, small and medium-sized enterprises are specifically represented (as in the case of the National Council on Vocational Education established by the Carl D. Perkins Act of 1984 in the United States or the small industry representation on the central training organisation in Panama -- INAFORP -- and the National Vocational Training and Employment Board in Tunisia).

107. The review of the ILO's vocational training programme observed that, on the whole, "employers' and workers' representatives in many developing countries are striving to become equal partners with governments in vocational training matters" (paragraph 73). This tripartite approach is likely to take on greater importance in the training for redeployment programmes made necessary as a result of structural adjustment policies. In certain cases, the creation of joint consultative committees is encouraged, through subsidies among other things, to ease these adjustment measures for enterprises and their personnel. (Endnote 85)

108. It should further be noted that in most countries employers' and workers' organisations are consulted before the laws and enforcement regulations are discussed and adopted, and that, frequently, consultation with these organisations, usually in connection with the use of training levies imposed, provides them with an opportunity to influence both the formulation and the implementation of training policies and programmes.

109. Bearing in mind the provisions of Paragraphs 4(5), 19(2) and 22 of Recommendation No. 150, it is worth considering the general consultative and supervisory, but sometimes co-determining, role played in vocational training and, in some cases, retraining schemes or programmes in several countries by such bodies as works councils or works committees (whether joint -- involving management representatives -- or otherwise) and other staff representatives (union delegates, shop stewards, etc.). (Endnote 86) Such a role exists, for example, in Germany and the Netherlands (where vocational training is subject to the right of co-determination), in Austria, Belgium (especially in supervision), in Denmark, France (where all enterprises with at least 200 employees are obliged to have a training committee to study training needs), in Gabon, India, Japan, Luxembourg, Mauritania, Mexico (where there are courses and seminars for the worker members of the works training committees), Morocco (for further training), Norway, Spain, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zaire. In the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the union works committee is responsible for training and further training. With the greater autonomy allowed to enterprises in the USSR, the responsibility of management, in particular as regards the continuing training of personnel, is on the increase. The Byelorussian SSR has referred to the possibility of establishing a vocational and economic training council in enterprises, on an optional basis. In Australia, a resolution adopted in September 1989 by the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) advocated the creation of committees to prepare training schemes at both enterprise and sectoral levels.

(ii) Co-operation in the implementation of programmes and policies

110. The role of the social partners is important in this respect. Apart from the fact that employers can themselves provide initial training, further training and retraining (large enterprises having their own schools or training centres, while smaller enterprises train apprentices), the influence of the occupational organisations (Endnote 87) is considerable in a number of countries. This is true, for example, of the chambers of industry and commerce, chambers of craft industries, as well as the chambers of agriculture in Germany or in France. They are also entrusted in some cases with the formulation of training programmes and standards as well as the organisation of examinations. (Endnote 88) One of the functions assigned to the chambers of commerce and industry in Romania by Legislative Decree No. 139 of 1990 is the promotion of vocational training.

111. In the Netherlands, this work is in principle divided between the State, which deals mainly with the training of the unemployed, and the social partners, who are involved in the training of workers already in employment, although, in practice, the two co-operate on these different programmes. In several countries, such as Austria, France, Italy, Singapore (as regards computer science), the United Kingdom, and the United States, certain types of vocational training are provided by workers' organisations in addition to trade union training and workers' education in the strict sense of the term.

112. Many non-governmental organisations (NGOs), are active in the training field, particularly in developing countries, where they run private schools or training centres, in some cases for the rehabilitation of disabled persons.

(f) The role of research and periodic reviews of policies and programmes

113. Recommendation No. 150 contains a number of provisions in this respect (see, in particular, Paragraphs 5(2)(j), 6(c), 68, 70(c), 72(b) and (e) and 73), which can be considered suggestions as to the best means of implementing the instruments in question.

114. A number of member States have referred to research work or research institutions: (Endnote 89) some of these focus on needs assessment (Endnote 90) or vocational guidance. (Endnote 91) Others are more general and concentrate on education and training, (Endnote 92) sometimes with follow-up or cohort studies to evaluate the results of the courses conducted, the programmes or the institutions. In several Latin American countries, the central training organisation conducts research either independently or in co-operation with the competent authorities. (Endnote 93) Some of the many research programmes carried out in Brazil concern the results of tax-deductible training courses, courses provided by mobile training units and modular training, in the informal sector. Various organisations that include consultancy among their other activities can also provide a useful vantage point.

115. In the Netherlands, it is envisaged that new developments in vocational training submitted to Parliament four years after the adoption of the new legislation on employment will be evaluated.

116. Other countries (Endnote 94) stressed that their programmes were periodically, even continually, reviewed and updated, as were the lists of occupations with apprenticeships.

117. Several countries have emphasised the overall importance that they attach to information and documentation, not only in the field of vocational guidance. In Australia, the states of Queensland and Victoria have built up data banks. In France, the social partners have collaborated in the establishment of an information centre which makes considerable use of telecommunications and information technology. Mexico and Panama have also mentioned an information and documentation centre.

118. In general, reference was made earlier in this report to the authorities and bodies responsible for co-ordination, the various types of legislative or administrative measures and the co-operation of employers' and workers' organisations, which demonstrate the effect that can be given to Parts XI to XIII of Recommendation No. 150. Research and assessment (even when based on incomplete data), which have just been discussed, and supervision of implementation, which will be dealt with below, make it possible to direct the necessary improvements and adjustments. The foregoing can be illustrated by several concrete examples. Some programmes in Germany give ample freedom to the local officials to choose subjects and training institutions. Subsequently, however, these officials are evaluated on the basis of the number of trainees who obtain stable work after the course. In the United States (California) schools and enterprises are reimbursed the cost of training only for those trainees who are still employed 90 days after the end of the course. (Endnote 95) In Rwanda, a national committee of inquiry a few years ago revealed various abuses in private fee-charging training establishments.

Section 2. Implementation of objectives

119. Article 2 of Convention No. 142 stipulates that: "With the above ends in view, each Member shall establish and develop open, flexible and complementary systems of general, technical and vocational education, educational and vocational guidance and vocational training, whether these activities take place within the system of formal education or outside it." Recommendation No. 150 specifies in Paragraph 15(2)(d) that special attention should be paid to "effectively co-ordinating general education and vocational training, theoretical and practical instruction and initial and further training".

120. In the comments which follow, the Committee will focus on this open, flexible and complementary aspect as well as the improvements that might be made in the systems under consideration. It is, in fact, scarcely possible to give an overall view of the diversity of the general education systems or the activities conducted within the school system on the basis of the information received from the member States under article 22 and article 19 of the ILO Constitution. For further information on this subject see recent comparative studies published elsewhere, in particular by UNESCO. (Endnote 96)

(a) Open systems

121. The attainment of this objective presupposes that appropriate steps have been taken to make the various systems accessible to the greatest possible number of persons possessing the requisite aptitudes or knowledge. Hence the importance of scholarships and other financial assistance (such as travel allowances, as in Australia for example, or meal and accommodation allowances or boarding facilities, examples of which are to be found in many countries) as well as facilities for persons with family responsibilities (day nurseries, etc.) and employed persons (evening classes and various forms of distance learning which will be discussed later). Accessibility is not merely a matter of geographical siting of educational and training establishments or even of financial assistance. It also includes means of facilitating the attainment of certain levels, even at a later age, (for example the alternative means of access to university studies in Germany or the special examination in France for those who have not obtained a secondary-school diploma) or "bridging training", easing the transition from one field to another by means of support, upgrading or remedial educational or training measures. This is especially worthwhile, inasmuch as in many countries technical and vocational education or vocational training at the basic or intermediate levels are often seen as a last resort, probably because of the traditional image of manual labour. It also provides an opportunity of remedying faulty initial guidance and of better adapting to change, for example in the context of permanent or continuing training referred to in Article 4 of the Convention.

(b) Flexible and complementary systems

122. The importance of achieving this objective is closely related to the foregoing. Complementarity is suggested in general terms in Paragraph 15(2)(d) of Recommendation No. 150 quoted above. Evidence of this complementarity, in conformity with the subparagraphs (d) and (g) of Paragraph 5(2) of the Recommendation, can be seen in the bridging training mentioned earlier. This is the case, for example, in Norway, where a technician's certificate from a technical school opens the way to engineering school or university, or in Portugal, where equivalence has been accorded to a number of vocational training diplomas in the case of skilled workers. Turkey has also referred to its efforts to ease the transition from one educational or training system to another.

123. Flexibility can take a variety of forms. Various countries, such as Switzerland, allow persons other than apprentices to sit the final apprenticeship examinations on condition that they have worked in the trade or occupation concerned for a specified minimum period.

124. However, perhaps the most characteristic aspects of the present situation which seem likely to become considerably more widespread in the years to come, are, on the one hand, training by modules or cumulative credits, (Endnote 97) along the lines of Paragraph 16 of Recommendation No. 150, which allows for a personalised training process and is generally formalised by what are often called intermediate examinations, unfortunately not yet recognised in collective agreements, and, on the other hand, distance learning or mobile training units. (Endnote 98) One might refer to Paragraph 17(2) of Recommendation No. 150, according to which "in the provision of training, advantage should be taken, as appropriate, of mass media, mobile units, and correspondence courses and other self-instruction programmes." Several examples can illustrate how this provision has been implemented. (Endnote 99)

125. The available information on modern telecommunications and computer technology suggests that they should greatly increase training opportunities and ensure maximum flexibility, often at the level of the individual student, already widely available through programmed teaching, e.g. set books; learning by radio or television (Endnote 100) (possibly closed-circuit or satellite television); other audio-visual aids, computer-assisted learning; (Endnote 101) microcomputers; (Endnote 102) soon perhaps with compact discs or what are known as interactive video discs. Distance learning can be used in small and medium-sized enterprises and for management training. (Endnote 103)

126. A form of flexibility and complementarity which does not always appear to have produced the desired results is vocational teaching in schools, including the introduction of various career-oriented course subjects (Endnote 104) towards the end of compulsory schooling or secondary education. (Endnote 105) Far too often, especially in the developing countries, (Endnote 106) this has been no more than a superficial preparation, with instruction or training provided by personnel without the necessary knowledge and experience. It also appears that the demand has been above all for administrative posts, or that these career-oriented courses have had little bearing on the real needs of the labour market.

127. For those who have not had appropriate systematic training before entry into employment, the transition from school to working life is a problem that countries are increasingly trying to address. (Endnote 107) This general survey will deal later with programmes which combine practical training on the job with instruction in a school or centre, including apprenticeship. Though systematically organised in Austria, Germany and Switzerland, such programmes may be difficult to adapt to developing countries, largely because employers are often reluctant to release their apprentices once a week or once a month throughout the period of instruction.

128. The special problems raised by apprenticeship and training policies and practice in respect of the informal sector will be examined in Chapter IV below.

(c) Development of systems through research and in the light of the results of supervision and inspections

129. In addition to the usefulness of research and documentation, it should be pointed out that the results of supervision and inspections can contribute to improving systems of human resources development. This is largely the responsibility of the labour inspectorate in France and in a number of French-speaking African countries, and of the central training body in many Latin American countries. (Endnote 108) In Cyprus, the Bureau of Apprenticeships appoints inspectors to monitor the progress of apprentices and to assist their instructors in enterprises and technical schools. In Switzerland, apprenticeship committees, on which representatives of the employers' and workers' organisations are particularly active, play a very important supervisory role.

130. Most countries have a special supervisory body for establishments that come under the jurisdiction of the ministry for education, in some cases including higher educational establishments. Sometimes, as in Portugal, apprenticeship is supervised by the relevant departments of the ministry for education and the ministry for employment. In several cases, assessments carried out before, during and after the subsidised training courses can also provide a useful basis for evaluation.

(d) Implementation by well-trained staff (Endnote 109)

131. There is a certain diversity among countries. The staff in question may be teachers of general theoretical or technical subjects, instructors and other practical training staff, or administrators of training institutions and, of course, guidance counsellors. A university degree (Endnote 110) is usually required of teachers, often accompanied by a teacher's training qualification. The training of other trainers is generally shorter and is sometimes provided by the enterprise where they work, by the adult vocational training body, as in France, or by the chambers of industry and commerce or the chambers of small trades and crafts. In Switzerland, apprenticeship masters attend special courses. In Germany, the qualifications required of trainers are set forth in ordinances, and their training programmes are periodically updated. (Endnote 111)

132. Some countries (Endnote 112) have made provision for a special institution for the training of trainers, which also conducts research and, in some cases, trains administrators of training establishments (Endnote 113) while in others, in particular in Latin America, (Endnote 114) these activities are included in the responsibilities of the central vocational training body. In the United Kingdom, there are training colleges for instructors and a network of centres for Youth Training Scheme (YTS) instructors, as well as for YTS administrators.

133. It is not unusual either for such means of communication as radio and television to be used to improve or update the knowledge of staff. (Endnote 115) There is an increasing tendency these days for enterprises to organise periodical courses and meetings for trainers, (Endnote 116) in order to keep them abreast of new techniques and other aspects of the world of work. There is also a growing demand, in universities as well as other establishments, for part-time teachers who work in the industry or occupation; and there are retraining-for-redeployment courses such as those designed to teach electronics to mechanical engineering instructors. (Endnote 117)

134. Several countries have mentioned the difficulty of recruiting vocational training instructors or supervisors because of the relatively low salaries offered. (Endnote 118) Their salaries are in fact often aligned with those of the public service but without the additional benefits accruing in the latter: hence the formula, referred to earlier, aimed at establishing autonomous bodies.

135. The chapter on technical co-operation will deal with the training and further training of instructors and administrators of vocational training institutions provided by the ILO's International Training Centre in Turin, for nationals from developing countries, where the needs are great.

136. The training and further training of persons giving vocational guidance, referred to in Paragraph 62 of Recommendation No. 150, will be dealt with in the following chapter, which examines the whole issue of educational and vocational guidance.

Endnotes

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Legislation

See related national legislation from Natlex

United States: Carl. D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984

Cross references
Constitution: Article 19
Constitution: Article 22
Constitution: Article 35
Conventions: C088 Employment Service Convention, 1948
Recommendations:R083 Employment Service Recommendation, 1948
Recommendations:R113 Consultation (Industrial and National Levels) Recommendation, 1960